CLASSIFICATION: B1; probable human carcinogen. BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION:
Based on limited evidence in humans, and sufficient evidence in animals. Human
data include nine studies that show statistically significant associations
between site-specific respiratory neoplasms and exposure to formaldehyde or formaldehyde-containing products. An increased
incidence of nasal squamous cell carcinomas was observed in long-term inhalation
studies in rats and in mice. The classification is supported by in vitro
genotoxicity data and formaldehyde's
structural relationships to other carcinogenic aldehydes such as acetaldehyde.
HUMAN CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Limited. ANIMAL CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Sufficient.
[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Integrated Risk
Information System (IRIS) on Formaldehyde (50-00-0) Available from:
http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris on the Substance File List as of March 15,
2000]**PEER REVIEWED**
A2. A2= Suspected human carcinogen. [American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for
Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and BiologicalExposure Indices (BEIs)
for 1995-1996. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1995. 22]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Evaluation: There is limited evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of
formaldehyde. There is sufficient
evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde. Overall evaluation: Formaldehyde is probably carcinogenic to
humans (Group 2A). [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p.
V62 336 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Human Toxicity Excerpts:
IF SOLN IS INGESTED, MUCOUS MEMBRANES OF MOUTH, THROAT, & INTESTINAL
TRACT ARE IRRITATED, & SEVERE PAIN, VOMITING, & DIARRHEA RESULT. AFTER
ABSORPTION, FORMALDEHYDE DEPRESSES CNS
& SYMPTOMS NOT UNLIKE THOSE OF ALC INTOXICATION ARE NOTED. THEY CONSIST OF
VERTIGO, DEPRESSION, & COMA. RARELY CONVULSIONS ARE OBSERVED.
[Goodman, L.S., and A. Gilman. (eds.) The Pharmacological
Basis of Therapeutics. 5th ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975.
993]**PEER REVIEWED**
ALTERATION OF TISSUE PROTEINS BY FORMALDEHYDE CAUSES LOCAL TOXICITY &
PROMOTES ALLERGIC REACTIONS. REPEATED CONTACT WITH SOLN ... MAY CAUSE ECZEMATOID
DERMATITIS. DERMATITIS FROM CLOTHING TREATED WITH FORMALDEHYDE ... HAS OCCURRED.
[Gilman, A. G., L. S. Goodman, and A. Gilman. (eds.). Goodman
and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 6th ed. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. 1980. 971]**PEER REVIEWED**
AQ SOLN ... SPLASHED OR DROPPED ON HUMAN EYES HAVE CAUSED INJURIES RANGING
FROM SEVERE PERMANENT CORNEAL OPACIFICATION & LOSS OF VISION TO MINOR
TRANSIENT INJURY OR DISCOMFORT, DEPENDING UPON WHETHER SOLN WERE OF HIGH OR LOW
CONCN. [Grant, W.M. Toxicology of the Eye. 3rd ed.
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1986. 443]**PEER
REVIEWED**
INHALATION OF HIGH CONCN ... CAUSED SEVERE IRRITATION OF RESP TRACT, LEADING
IN 2 INSTANCES TO DEATH. ... PULMONARY EDEMA, WITH RESIDUAL CARDIAC IMPAIRMENT
IN 1 CASE, WAS REPORTEDLY CAUSED BY SINGLE ACUTE INHALATIONS ... .
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 5th
ed. Cincinnati, OH:American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
1986. 276]**PEER REVIEWED**
IN SENSITIZED SUBJECTS SPECIFIC LATE ASTHMATIC REACTIONS MAY BE PROVOKED BY
BRIEF EXPOSURES AT APPROX 3 PPM. [HENDRICK DJ ET AL; J OCCUP
MED 24 (11): 893 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Ingestion of formaldehyde can cause a
reduction in body temperature. [Environment Canada; Tech Info
for Problem Spills: Formaldehyde p.83 (1985)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Symptoms related to ingestion of formaldehyde include: jaundice, acidosis,
& hematuria. Symptoms related to inhalation include: rhinitis, anosmia,
laryngospasm, tracheitis, & gastroenteritis. [ITII. Toxic
and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The
International Technical Information Institute, 1988. 250]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In a survey of 57 embalmers who were exposed to atmospheric concn below 2
ppm, there was a high incidence of symptoms of irritant effects on the eyes
(81%) nose & throat (75%). Other respiratory effects included cough (33%),
chest tightness (23%), wheezing (12%), & shortness of breath (11%). On the
basis of the results, 10% were acute bronchitics, & 30% were chronic
bronchitics. No control group was used & cigarette smoking was not taken
into account. [Plunkett ER, Barbela T; Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 38:
61 (1977)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Eyes: concn 1-10 ppm may produce appreciable eye irritation on initial
exposure; lacrimation occurs at about 4 ppm. [Health and
Safety Executive Monograph: Formaldehyde p.8 (1981)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
CULTURED BRONCHIAL & FIBROBLASTIC CELLS FROM HUMANS WERE USED TO STUDY
DNA DAMAGE & TOXICITY. FORMATION OF CROSSLINKS BETWEEN DNA & PROTEINS,
CAUSED SINGLE-STRAND BREAKS IN DNA, & INHIBITED RESEALING OF SINGLE-STRAND
BREAKS PRODUCED BY IONIZING RADIATION. [GRAFSTROM RC ET AL;
SCIENCE 220 (4593): 216-8 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde induced a 1.5-3 fold
increase in sister chromatid exchanges in ... human lymphocytes in culture.
[Obe G, Beek B; Drug and Alcohol Dependence 4: 91-4
(1979)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde was mutagenic for
diploid human lymphoblasts in culture ... /inducing an incr number of mutations
at/ 130 uM or 4 ppm by weight. [Goldmacher VS et al; Toxicol
Epidemiol Mech (Pap Meet) 173-91 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
OUTBREAK OF HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA, ATTRIBUTED TO ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURE ... OCCURRED
AMONG PATIENTS ON HEMODIALYSIS. 41 YR OLD WOMAN DIED 28 HR AFTER INGESTING 120
ML OF ... SOLN (37% WT/VOL FORMALDEHYDE,
12.5% VOL/VOL METHANOL, CONTAINING NO FORMIC ACID). [IARC.
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on
Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V29 369 (1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
EFFECTS IN WOMEN ATTRIBUTED TO EXPOSURE ... INCL MENSTRUAL DISORDERS &
SECONDARY STERILITY. [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of
the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p.
V29 370 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
SYMPTOMATOLOGY: A. Inhalation: 1. Irritation of mucous membranes, especially
of eyes, nose & upper respiratory tract. 2. With higher concn, cough,
dysphagia, bronchitis, pneumonia, edema or spasm of the larynx. Pulmonary edema
is uncommon. B. Ingestion. 1. Immediate intense pain in mouth, pharynx &
stomach. 2. Nausea, vomiting, hematemesis, abdominal pain & occasionally
diarrhea (which may be bloody). 3. Pale, clammy skin & other signs of shock.
4. Difficult micturition, hematuria, anuria. 5. Vertigo, convulsions, stupor,
& coma. 6. Death due to respiratory failure. C. Skin contact: 1. Irritation
& hardening of skin. Strong solutions produce coagulation necrosis. 2.
Dermatitis & hypersensitivity from prolonged or repeated exposure.
[Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
III-197]**PEER REVIEWED**
INVESTIGATIONS OF CILIOSTATIC EFFECT OF ALDEHYDES ARE OF SPECIAL INTEREST
SINCE MANY HAVE IRRITATING EFFECT ON TRACHEAL MUCOSA. COMPARISON OF CILIOSTATIC
EFFECT SHOWED FORMALDEHYDE TO BE MOST
TOXIC FOLLOWED BY ACETALDEHYDE & ACROLEIN. CROTONALDEHYDE & METHACROLEIN
SHOWED WEAKEST EFFECT. TECHNIQUE USED FOR OBSERVING TRACHEAL CILIARY ACTIVITY
WAS THE IN VITRO TECHNIQUE. [DALHAMN T, ROSENGREN A; ARCH
OTOLARYNGOL 93 (5): 496-500 (1971)]**PEER REVIEWED**
One hundred nine workers & 254 control subjects were studied to evaluate
the effects of formaldehyde on the
mucous membranes & lungs. A modified, respiratory symptom questionnaire
& spirometry were admin to all study participants before & after their
work shift, & formaldehyde levels
were determined for each test subject. Over the course of the monitored work
shift, test subjects demonstrated a dose-dependent excess of irritant symptoms
& a statistically significant decline in certain lung function parameters.
Baseline spirometry values were not significantly different between test &
control groups, & formaldehyde-exposed workers did not report an
excess of respiratory symptoms. Formaldehyde is a dose-dependent irritant of
the eyes & mucous membranes at low-level exposures. It can exert a small,
across-shift effect on airways but after a mean exposure of 10 yr does not
appear to cause permanent respiratory impairment. [Horvath EP
et al; J Am Med Assoc 259 (5): 701-7 (1988)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The effect of formaldehyde exposure
on medical students conducting dissections in the gross anatomy laboratory
course /was evaluated using/ self-administered questionnaires designed to assess
the frequency of occurrence of various symptoms indicating the acute effects of
formaldehyde exposure. The
questionnaires were given to a cohort of 1st-yr medical students on completion
of the gross anatomy lab course. Air sampling of formaldehyde levels in the anatomy labs was
carried out on one day during the time in which these students were conducting
dissections. ... Although the results of the air sampling showed formaldehyde levels to be well below current
occupational standards, significant numbers of students reported experiencing
symptoms associated with formaldehyde
exposure. Estimates of the relative risk of experiencing formaldehyde-related symptoms in the anatomy
laboratories compared to the control laboratories ranged from 2.0-19.0,
depending on the particular symptom. In addn, it was found that female students
were 3 times more likely to report formaldehyde-related symptoms than male
students. [Fleischer JM; NY J Med 87 (7): 385-8 (1987)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A population based case control study was undertaken in 13 counties of
western Washington to determine if occupational formaldehyde exposure was related to cancer of
the oropharynx & hypopharynx (OHPC, N=205), nasopharynx (NPC, N=27) or sinus
& nasal cavity (SNC, N=53). Controls were selected by random digit dialing
(N= 552). A telephone interview inquired about lifetime occupational history as
well as a number of potential confounding factors, including smoking &
drinking. Approximately half (N=143) of the case interviews were with next of
kin. ... Logistic regression was used to estimate exposure odds ratios STET
while taking into account multiple risk factors for each site. No significant
associations were found between occupational formaldehyde exposure & any of the cancer
sites under study. However, relative risk estimates associated with the highest
exposure score categories were evaluated for oropharynx & hypopharynx
(OR=1.3, 95% Confidence Interval= 0.6-3.1) & nasopharynx (OR=2.1, 95%
Cl=0.4-10.0). When an induction period was accounted for only oropharynx &
hypopharynx & nasopharynx increased to 1.7 & 3.1, respectively. Several
limitations in the study tend to conservatively bias the results. ...
[Vaughn TL et al; Int J Cancer 38 (5): 677-84 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Because of the paucity of scientific data concerning the inhalation toxicity
of formaldehyde in humans,
determinations of the symptoms & alterations in pulmonary function resulting
from inhalation for 1 hr of 3 ppm formaldehyde were studied. The protocol
consisted of randomized exposure of each subject to clean air or 3.0 ppm formaldehyde on 2 separate days. Twenty-two
healthy normal subjects engaged in intermittent heavy exercise (VE= 65/min)
& 16 asthmatic subjects performed intermittent moderate exercise (VE=
37/min). Symptoms & pulmonary functions were assessed during the time course
of exposure; nonspecific airway reactivity was assessed after exposure. Both
groups exhibited similar, significant (p<0.01) increases in perceived odor,
nose/throat irritation, & eye irritation throughout the exposure. The
non-asthmatic group had the following slight but statistically significant
(p<0.02) lower pulmonary functions after 55 min of exposure to formaldehyde as compared to clean air: 3.8% in
FEV1, 2.6% in FVC, & 2.8% in FEV3. The asthmatic group showed no
statistically significant decrements in pulmonary function.
[Green DJ et al; Am Rev Respir Dis 135 (6): 1261-6
(1987)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A retrospective mortality analysis was conducted in a cohort of 9,365
individuals employed as of 1940 in two chrome leather tanneries in the United
States and followed to the end of 1982. Vital status as of the closing date was
determined for over 95% of the cohort. Potential hazardous workplace exposures
varied with department and included ... formaldehyde. ... Mortality from all causes
combined was lower than expected for each tannery. ... Deaths from cancer of
each site, including the lung, were also lower than expected compared to those
of either the population of the United States or of local state rates. A
significant excess of deaths was observed, however, due to accidental causes in
one tannery and cirrhosis of the liver, suicide, and alcoholism in the other.
These excesses did not appear to be casually associated with occupational
exposures. [Stern FB et al; Scand J Work Environ Health 13
(2): 108-17 (1987)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Infectivity of human T-cell lymphotropic virus, Type III (HTLV-III) was ...
efficiently inactivated by formalin ...
. [Quinnan GV et al; Transfusion 26 (5): 481-3 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Eight symptomatic individuals chronically exposed to indoor formaldehyde at low concentrations (0.07-0.55
ppm) were compared to 8 nonexposed subjects with respect to: (1) presence of IgG
and IgE antibodies to formaldehyde
conjugated to human serum albumin (F-HSA); (2) the percentage of venous blood T-
and B-cells by E- and EAC-rosetting; and (3) the ability of T- and B-cells to
undergo mitogen (phytohemagglutin and pokeweed) stimulated blastogenesis as
measured by the incorporation of tritiated thymidine. Anti-F-HSA IgG, but not
IgE, antibodies were detected in the sera of the 8 exposed subjects; none were
found in 7 of the controls. T-lymphocytes were decreased in the exposed (48%)
compared to the control (65.9%) subjects (p< 0.01). B-cells were 12.6%
(exposed group) and 14.75% (controls) (p< 0.05). The incorporation of labeled
thymidine by T-cells (phytohemagglutin) was decreased: 17,882 cpm (exposed
group) and 28,576 cpm (p< 0.01). T- and B-cell blastogenesis (pokeweed) was
9,698 cpm (exposed group) and 11,279 (controls) (p< 0.1).
[Thrasher JD et al; Arch Environ Health 42 (6): 347-50
(1987)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Both death and survival from 4-oz formalin ingestions have been reported in
adults. The probable mean lethal adult dose is 1 to 2 oz. Death may occur within
3 hours; survival past 48 hours usually means recovery.
[Ellenhorn, M.J., S. Schonwald, G. Ordog, J. Wasserberger.
Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology: Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. 2nd
ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1997. 1214]**PEER
REVIEWED**
An environmental survey of 2 wood products (plywood, particle-board)
companies revealed mean concns in the plywood forming areas of 0.8 ppm &, in
2 particle-board forming areas, of 1.1 to 1.4 ppm /formaldehyde/. Ophthalmologic evaluations were
conducted & eye irritation self-reports were collected from 84 subject
workers, including unexposed controls, from various areas in the plants. Results
from both were unremarkable, as were tests mapping their visual fields. However,
there were subjective reports of at least occasional eye irritation in 67% of
the exposed subjects, with more such reports coming from workers in areas of the
plant with the higher concns. An explosion at the factory closed a major product
line & resulted in laying off many of the volunteer subjects prior to
performance testing; the remaining 49 workers were tested before & after
their workshift (& 13 of them were tested on 2 days) in order to assess
acute effects of formaldehyde on visual
acuity, depth perception, peripheral vision, accommodation, eye movement &
fixation, divided attention, & color vision. Subjective reports of eye
irritation on the day of testing did not correlate, or correlated negatively,
with formaldehyde concns on the test
day, which averaged 0.4 ppm. Average visual test scores were better at the end
of the day than at the beginning, & there was a trend for those with higher
formaldehyde levels to demonstrate
greater improvement. Some of the changes reached traditional levels of
statistical significance. The results from this investigation, while relevant to
the neurotoxicity of formaldehyde,
suffer from the small sample size & the possibility that the comparison
subjects had also experienced formaldehyde exposure. With these caveats,
this study suggests that mean formaldehyde exposures at 0.4 ppm produce no
deleterious acute effects on visual performance, but chronic exposures between
0.8 & 1.4 ppm may produce an increased incidence of self reported symptoms
of eye irritation in persons who do not have clinical ophthalmologic defects.
[O'Donoghue, J.L. (ed.). Neurotoxicity of Industrial and
Commercial Chemicals. Volume I. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1985. 59]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Symptoms: Local: Conjunctivitis, corneal burns; brownish discoloration of
skin; dermatitis, urticaria (hives), pustulovesicular eruption. Inhalation:
rhinitis & anosmia (loss of sense of smell); pharyngitis, laryngospasm;
tracheitis & bronchitis; pulmonary edema, cough, constriction in chest;
dypsnea (difficult breathing), headache, weakness, palpitation (rapid heart
beat), gastro enteritis (inflammation of the stomach & intestines).
Ingestion: Burning in mouth & esophagus; nausea & vomiting; abdominal
pain, diarrhea, vertigo (dizziness), unconsciousness, jaundice, albuminuria,
hematuria, anuria, acidosis, convulsions. [ITII. Toxic and
Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International
Technical Information Institute, 1988. 249]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Aldehydes increase airflow at concentrations below those that decrease
respiratory frequency. /Aldehydes/ [Gilman, A.G., T.W. Rall,
A.S. Nies and P. Taylor (eds.). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis
of Therapeutics. 8th ed. New York, NY. Pergamon Press, 1990. 1618]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Data on concentration of formaldehyde
and 15 organic solvents in Finnish furniture factories from 1975 to 1984 were
presented. Workers often complained of severe eye, nose, and upper respiratory
tract irritation. Formaldehyde was
collected in a 1% sodium bisulfite solution and analyzed by the chromatropic
method. The solvents were adsorbed in a charcoal tube, desorbed with
carbon-disulfide or dimethylformamide, and analyzed by gas chromatography. All
highly exposed workers were monitored. The widest range of formaldehyde concentration was recorded in the
operation of the curtain painting furniture receiving operation, which was
between 0.2 and 5.4 ppm. The mean concentrations of most organic solvents
studied ranged from 4 to 66 ppm. Formaldehyde levels were high and the 1 ppm
exposure limit, defined as the 15 minute time weighted average by the Finnish
Board of Labor Protection, was exceeded about 40% of the time.
[Priha E et al; Ann Occup Hyg 30 (3): 289-94 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A study of 759 histologically verified cancers of the nasal cavity (287
cases), paranasal sinuses (179 cases), and nasopharynx (293 cases) and 2465
cancer controls diagnosed in Denmark between 1970 and 1982 was conducted to
investigate the importance of occupational exposure to formaldehyde. Information on job history for
cases and controls was derived from a national data linkage system and exposure
to formaldehyde and wood dust was
assessed by industrial hygienists unaware of the case control status of the
patients. The exposure rates for formaldehyde among male and female controls
were 4.2% and 0.1% respectively. After proper adjustment for contemporary wood
dust exposure, relative risk of 2.3 (95% CI= 0.9-5.8) for squamous cell
carcinoma and 2.2 (95% CI= 7-7.2) for adenocarcinoma of the nasal cavity and
paranasal sinuses were detected among men who have been exposed to formaldehyde in their job compared with those
never exposed. [Olsen JH, Asnaes S; Br J Ind Med 43 (11):
769-74 (1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The National Cancer Institute study on the relationship between exposure to
formaldehyde & mortality from
nasophryngeal cancer was evaluated. The study had indicated little evidence of a
link between formaldehyde at concns
normally encountered in the workplace & risk of nasopharyngeal cancer.
Although the overall standardized mortality ration was significantly elevated in
subjects exposed to formaldehyde, the
overall risk did not incr with increasing intensity of exposure. A reanalysis,
however, suggested that simultaneous exposure to particulates & formaldehyde could be a risk factor. A further
review of the National Cancer Institute findings showed that the significant
excess mortality was based on deaths occurring in a single factory (factory-A)
& occurred primarily in short term employees. When the data were analyzed in
terms of cumulative exposures that were known to include both formaldehyde & particulates, only the
highest exposure group had a significantly increased excess nasopharyngeal
cancer mortality. This excess was clearly located in factory-A. A follow-up
study of factory-A that added 5 more years of follow-up was initiated. It showed
no additional deaths from nasopharyngeal cancer even among workers with the
highest formaldehyde & particulate
exposures. The four deaths from nasopharyngeal cancer in this factory occurred
in workers employed in the same department & hired between 1949 & 1955.
Although these workers were exposed to formaldehyde & particulates, they were not
among the most highly exposed. [Collins JJ et al; J NCI 80
(5): 376-7 (1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
This study evaluates the histological changes, especially the presence of
possible precancerous lesions, in the nasal mucosa of workers exposed to formaldehyde. Nasal biopsies of 37 workers
occupationally exposed to formaldehyde
for more than five years and 37 age matched referents showed a higher degree of
metaplastic alterations in the former group. In addition, three cases of
epithelial dysplasia were observed among the exposed. These results indicate
that formaldehyde may be potentially
carcinogenic in man. Combination of this finding with the inconclusive
epidemiological studies suggests that formaldehyde is a weak carcinogen and that
occupational exposure to formaldehyde
alone is insufficient to induce nasal cancer. [Boysen M et
al; Br J Ind Med 47 (2): 116-21 (1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Clinical & animal studies suggest that formaldehyde adsorbed on respirable particles
may elicit a greater pulmonary physiologic & inflammatory effect than
gaseous formaldehyde alone. This study
was to determine if respirable carbon particles have a synergistic effect on the
acute symptomatic & pulmonary physiologic response to formaldehyde inhalation. Normal, nonsmoking,
methacholine-nonreactive subjects were exposed to 2 hr each of clean air, 3 ppm
formaldehyde, 0.5 mg/cu m respirable
activated carbon aerosol, & the combination of 3 ppm formaldehyde plus activated carbon aerosol.
The subjects engaged in intermittent heavy exercise (VE= 57 1/min) for 15 min
each half hour. Formaldehyde exposure
was associated with significant increases in reported eye irritation, nasal
irritation, throat irritation, headache, chest discomfort, & odor.
Synergistic increases in cough, but not in other irritant respiratory tract
symptoms, were observed with inhalation of formaldehyde & carbon. Small (<5%)
synergistic decreases in FVC & FEV3 were also seen. No formaldehyde effect was observed on FEV1;
however, we did observe small (<10%) significant decreases in FEF25-75%,
which may be indicative of increased airway tone. Overall, results demonstrated
synergism, but the effect is small & its clinical significance is uncertain.
[Green DJ et al; J Toxicol Environ Health 28 (3): 261-75
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
To study the cytotoxic effect of formaldehyde on the human nasal mucosa 75 men
with occupational exposure to formaldehyde or to formaldehyde & wood dust, were examined,
looking particularly at early signs of irritative effects &
histopathological changes in the nasal mucosa. A nasal biopsy specimen was
graded from 0-8 according to the morphological changes. A high frequency of
nasal symptoms, mostly a running nose & crusting, was related to exposure to
formaldehyde. Only three men had a
normal mucosa; the remainder has loss of cilia & goblet cell hyperplasia
(11%) & squamous metapolasia (78%); in 6 cases (8%) there was a mild
dysplasia. The histological grading showed a significantly higher score when
compared with unexposed controls (2.9 v 1.8). There was no dose response
relation, no malignancies, & no difference in the histological score between
those exposed to formaldehyde or to
formaldehyde & wood dust.
[Edling C et al; Br J Ind Med 45 (11): 761-5 (1988)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A study of respiratory symptoms and pathophysiological effects associated
with occupational exposure to formaldehyde and wood dust was conducted. The
cohort consisted of 70 Swedish workers exposed to formaldehyde during the production of formaldehyde and formaldehyde based products (formaldehyde group) and 100 furniture workers
exposed to formaldehyde and wood dust
(formaldehyde/wood dust group). The
comparisons consisted of 36 local government clerks. The formaldehyde group was exposed to 0.05 to 0.5
mg/cu m formaldehyde and the furniture
workers to 0.2 to 0.3 mg/cu m formaldehyde and 1 to 2 mg/cu m wood dust.
Annual formaldehyde exposures of the
comparisons averaged 0.09 mg/cu m. Sixty four percent of the formaldehyde group, 53% of the formaldehyde/wood dust group, and 25% of the
comparisons reported nasal discomfort. Symptoms from the lower airways were
reported by 44% of the formaldehyde
group, 39% of the formaldehyde/wood dust
group, and 14 % of the comparisons. Symptoms of nasal obstruction and watery
discharges were more frequent in the exposed subjects than in the comparisons.
More pronounced nasal swelling was found in the cohort than in the comparisons.
20% of the formaldehyde and 15% of the
formaldehyde/wood dust group had
impaired mucociliary clearance versus only 3% of the comparisons. Both exposed
groups had a reduced sense of smell. Forced vital capacity was significantly
decreased in the exposed groups. [Holmstorm M, Wilhelmsson B;
Scandinavian J Work Environ Health 14 (5): 306-11 (1988)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A study was conducted to determine if pathologists with exposure to formaldehyde demonstrate an excess risk of
cancer, particularly cancers of the nasopharyngeal and pharyngeal areas. A
population of 6411 physicians with occupational formaldehyde exposure participated in the
study. The occurrence of these types of cancers was 4.7 times higher in these
persons than in a comparable sized group of psychiatrists, but even so it is
difficult to determine the importance of this increased risk as being directly
tied to formaldehyde exposure.
Pathologists and other members of the study group were exposed to other
chemicals and infectious agents as well as formaldehyde. There was an apparent excess of
mortality from pancreatic cancer and brain cancers as well as leukemia.
[Matanoski GM; Risks of Pathologists Exposed to Formaldehyde
School of Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Maryland, Grant No. RO1-OH-01511 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The relation of chronic respiratory symptoms & pulmonary function to
formaldehyde in homes was studied in a
sample of 298 children (6-15 yr of age) & 613 adults. Formaldehyde measurements were made with
passive samplers during two 1 wk periods. Significantly greater prevalence rates
of asthma & chronic bronchitis were found in children from houses with formaldehyde levels 60-120 ppb than in those
less exposed, especially in children also exposed to environmental tobacco
smoke. In children, levels of peak expiratory flow rates decreased linearly with
formaldehyde exposure, with the
estimated decr due to 60 ppb of formaldehyde equivalent to 22% of peak
expiratory flow rates level in nonexposed children. The effects in asthmatic
children exposed to formaldehyde below
50 ppb were greater than in healthy ones. The effects in adults were less
evident: decrements in peak expiratory flow rates due to formaldehyde over 40 ppb were seen only in the
morning, & mainly in smokers. [Krzyzanowski M et al;
Environ Res 52 (2): 117-25 (1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The long term effects of formaldehyde
on the respiratory tract have been investigated in a group of 164 workers
exposed daily to the chemical during the production of urea formaldehyde resin, together with 129 workers
not exposed to free formaldehyde.
Exposure was classified as high (corresponding to an 8 hr time weighted exposure
of >2.0 ppm), medium (0.6-2.0 ppm), or low (0.1-0.5 ppm). 25% of workers had
high exposure at some time & 17% moderate exposure. Both exposed &
unexposed groups had an annual assessment that included lung function. The
proportion with self reported respiratory symptoms was similar in the two
groups, 12% & 16% reporting breathlessness on hurrying & 26% & 20%
wheezing. The initial forced expiratory volume in 1 sec was within 0.5 l (approx
on standard deviation) of the predicted value (by age & height) in 65% of
the exposed & 59% of unexposed workers & >0.5 l below the predicted
value in 9% of exposed & 11% unexposed workers. The mean decline in forced
expiratory volume in 1 sec was 42 ml/yr (standard deviation 45) in the exposed
& 41 ml/yr in the unexposed group (standard deviation 40 ml/yr). The rate of
decline showed the expected association with smoking in the unexposed group, but
in the exposed group the mean rate of decline in the never smokers was similar
to that in current smokers. There were, however, relatively few never smokers
& considerable variation in the rates of decline. In the exposed group no
association was found between the rate of decline & indices of exposure to
formaldehyde. Thus there is no evidence
from this study of an excess of respiratory symptoms or decline in lung function
in the workers exposed to formaldehyde.
The similar rate of decline of forced expiratory volume in 1 sec however in
never smokers & smokers of the exposed group is consistent with finding of
other studies for workers exposed to formaldehyde. [Nunn AJ et
al; Br J Ind Med 47 (11): 747-52 (1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A prospective evaluation of pulmonary function & respiratory symptoms was
conducted among 103 medical students exposed to formaldehyde over a 7 month period to
determine the incidence of bronchoconstriction & respiratory symptoms in
response to exposure. Time-weighted average formaldehyde exposures were generally <1
ppm & peak exposures were <5 ppm. Acute symptoms of eye & upper
respiratory irritation were significantly associated with exposure. There was no
pattern of bronchoconstriction in response to exposure after either 2 wks or 7
months. Twelve subjects had a history of asthma; they were likely to have
symptoms of respiratory irritation or changes in pulmonary function than those
without such a history. These findings are consistent with previous case reports
that indicate exposure to formaldehyde
vapor at levels that are commonly encountered in occupational & residential
seetings do not commonly cause significant bronchonconstriction, even among
subjects with preexisting asthma. [Uba G et al; Am J Ind Med
15 (1): 91-101 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A case of anaphylactoid reaction to a patch test with formaldehyde was described. The 40 year old
woman developed bronchospasm and laryngospasm following the inhalation of formaldehyde vapor. A year later she
accidentally entered a hospital room relatively soon after it had been
disinfected, and was hospitalized with dyspnea, cyanosis, bronchospasm, and
laryngospasm. Days later she did react to a patch test with a 1% solution of
formaldehyde in water. Pulmonary
function tests 20 min after the patch test revealed a 50% reduction in FEV1 and
a 63% reduction in MEF 25. [Orlandini A et al; Contact
Dermatitis 19 (5): 383-4 (1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Four groups of patients with long-term inhalation exposure to formaldehyde were compared with controls who
had short-term periodic exposure to formaldehyde. The following were determined
for all groups: total white cell, lymphocyte, and T cell counts; T
helper/suppressor ratios; total Ta1+, IL2+, and B cell counts; antibodies to
formaldehyde-human serum albumin
conjugate and autoantibodies. When compared with the controls, the patients had
significantly higer antibody titers to formaldehyde-human serum albumin. In addition,
significant increases in Ta1+, IL2+, and B cells and autoantibodies were
observed. Immune activation, autoantibodies, and anti formaldehyde-human serum albumin antibodies
are associated with long-term formaldehyde inhalation.
[Thrasher JD et al; Arch Environ Health 45 (4): 217-23
(1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The incidence of spontaneous abortions among hospital staff who used ethylene
oxide, glutaral (glutaraldehyde) & formaldehyde for the chemical sterilization of
instruments was studied using data from a questionnaire & a hospital
discharge register. ... When the staff were concerned in sterilizing during
their pregnancy the frequency was 16.7% compared with 5.6% for the nonexposed
pregnancies. The incr frequency ... correlated with exposure to ethylene oxide
but not with exposure to glutaral or formaldehyde. [Hemminki K
et al; Brit Med J 285: 1461-63 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Employees exposed to formaldehyde in
the woodworking industry and nonexposed control subjects were examined by
spirometry and the nitrogen washout technique. A dose-response relationship was
found between exposure to formaldehyde
and decrease in lung function. Industrial exposure to formaldehyde causes transient lung function
impairment over a work shift, with a cumulative effect over the years. The
impairment, however, can be reversed with 4 wk of no exposure.
[Alexandersson R, Hedenstierna G; Arch Environ Health 44 (1):
5-11 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The mortality of 1,332 male workers employed at least 30 days in 1959-1980 in
a resins-manufacturing plant was examined. Ambient measurements taken in the
plant between 1974 and 1979 documented a potential for exposure to levels of
formaldehyde as high or greater than 3.0
mg/cu m. Vital status was ascertained for 98.6% of the cohort members, and their
mortality was compared with expected deaths drawn from the national and local
population rates. A statistically significant increase in lung cancer was
observed, based on 18 deaths, which was not fully accounted for by possible
confounding factors linked to personal habits or sociocultural characteristics.
This elevated risk, however, could not be attributed specifically to exposure to
formaldehyde. Mortality from digestive
cancer (14 deaths observed) and hematologic neoplasms (5 deaths observed) was
not substantially higher than expected. [Bertazzi PA et al;
Scand J Work Environ Health 12 (5): 461-8 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde has been found to cause
bronchial asthma-like symptoms in humans. A young male neurology resident who
spent 2 hr in autopsy of formaldehyde-preserved human brains
experienced both conjunctival & nasal irritation while working; however,
over the next 15 hr after cessation of exposure, he developed progressive
dyspnea & tightness in the chest. Early edema indicative of pneumonitis was
visible on Xray, & after treatment with aminophyline, hydrocortisone, &
oxygen (nasal prong at 4 l/min), he gradually improved over the following 2
days. He continued to need prednisone (20 mg every other day for 2 wk), & he
had fully recovered 5 wk after the onset of his hypersensitivity reaction to
inhaled formaldehyde.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II, III. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1991. 677]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In cultured human bronchial fibroblasts exposed to the carcinogen
N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (NMU) in combination with formaldehyde, formaldehyde was observed to inhibit repair of
alkylation of DNA at the O6 guanine position induced by NMU. Whether formaldehyde enhances the effects of other
DNA-damaging agents has not yet been evaluated. [Rom, W.N.
(ed.). Environmental and Occupational Medicine. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little,
Brown and Company, 1992. 868]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hemodialysis patients are exposed chronically to trace levels of formaldehyde (by formalin sterilization of their dialyzers to
permit reuse). Erythrocytes can be characterized in terms of MN phenotypes,
analogous to the AB-O system. The normal distribution of MM, NN, an MN
phenotypes is about 25, 25, and 50%, respectively. Only 25% of the population
would be expected to have anti-N antibodies. Formaldehyde exposure may be followed by the
development of anti-N-like antibodies probably as a result of reaction with the
dissolved form of formaldehyde,
methylene glycol. The anti-N-like antibodies are also found following exposure
to sodium hypochlorite. [Ellenhorn, M.J., S. Schonwald, G.
Ordog, J. Wasserberger. Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology: Diagnosis and Treatment
of Human Poisoning. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1997.
1216]**PEER REVIEWED**
The use of formaldehyde as a nail
hardener, on the other hand, is accompanied by a significant number of serious
injuries to sensitive nail and adnexal tissues. This type of exposure may
contribute substantially to that portion of the 4% sensitization index seen in
clinical patients which is cosmetic-related. [Marzulli, F.N.,
H.I. Maibach. Dermatotoxicology 4th ed. New York, NY: Hemisphere Publishing
Corp., 1991. 424]**PEER REVIEWED**
In a study ..., a group of 33 observers judged the perceived irritation &
odor of formaldehyde during 29-min
chamber esposures to concns ranging from 0.3-2.4 mg/cu m. The sensory irritation
increased with time for the lower concns & decreased with time for the
highest. This effect was true for irritation of eyes, nose, & throat &
the sensitivity proved to be roughly equal for all three sites. The sensory
irritant effect of formaldehyde at 1.2
mg/cu m was shown to decr when the chemical pyridine was injected into the
chanber; such sensory interactions occur in environmentally realistic
situations. [WHO; Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde
p.138 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... Healthy volunteers (24 men, 9 women) /were exposed/ to formaldehyde concns ranging between 0.036
& 4.8 mg/cu m air (33 volunteers for 35 min, 48 volunteers for 1.5 min. Eye
blinking rates as well as subjective irritation effects were determined. The
irritation threshold was found to range between 1.2 & 2.4 mg formaldehyde/cu m. A similar threshold (1
mg/cu m) was found in other studies. ... /It was/ noted that 9 out of 53 medical
student volunteers exposed to formaldehyde concns of between 0.39 & 0.60
mg/cu m for 8 hr/wk, complained of headaches, a burning sensation in the eyes,
sore throat, & annoyance because of the smell. [WHO;
Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde p.138 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A 60-yr old man swallowed 60-90 mg of a 40% formaldehyde soln. Thirty hr after death, the
mucosa of the lowere part of the esophagus, stomach, & first portion of
duodenum were dark chocolate brown in color & of the consistency of leather.
All organs & tissues in contact with the stomach were "hardened" to a depth
of about 8 mm. [WHO; Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde
p.141 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Workers exposed to 0.35-1.0 ppm (0.43-1.2 mg/cu m) for 6 minutes had a
significant irritation response at 1.0 ppm; nonsignificant responses were
reported at 0.7 and 0.9 ppm(0.9 and 1.1 mg/cu m). [IARC.
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on
Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V62 303 (1995)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde vapor is very irritating
to the mucous membranes and toxic to animals, including man.
[Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World
Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British Crop Protection Council, 1994.
525]**PEER REVIEWED**
... examined smears of nasal respiratory mucosa cells sampled from the inner
turbinate of 15 nonsmokers who were exposed to formaldehyde released from a urea-formaldehyde glue used in a plywood factory
and 15 age- and sex-matched nonexposed clerks from outside of the factory.
Estimates of formaldehyde air conc
ranged from : 0.21 to 0.60 (mean 0.39 + or - 0.20 ppm) in the warehouse where
seven subject worked, 0.08 to 0.14 ppm (mean 0.1 + or - 0.02 ppm) in the
shearing press where six subjects worked, and 0.09 ppm (only one sample taken)
in the sawmill area where two subjects worked. Mean wood dust concn for the
three areas were 0.23 + or - 0.1 mg/m3, 0.41 + or - 0.21 mg/m3, and 0.73 mg/m3,
respectively. Exposed subjects worked at the factory for 2-19 yr (mean 6.8 + or
- 5.0 yr). Nasal mucosal slides were scored as follows: normal cellularity, 1;
number of mucus-secreting cells greater than ciliated cells, 1.5; hyperplasia,
2; squamous metaplasia, 2.5; mild dysplasia, 3; moderate dysplasia, 4; severe
dysplasia, 5; and malignant cells, 6. In the exposed group, all subjects had a
greater number of nonciliated than ciliated cells, 40% had hyperplasia, 67% had
squamous metaplasia, and 6% slight dysplasia. In controls, 26% had normal
cytology, 67% had more ciliated than nonciliated cells, 33% had hyperplasia, and
6% had squamous metaplasia. The mean cytology score for the exposed group (2.3 +
or - 0.5) was reported to be statistically significantly greater than the
control score (1.6 + or - 0.5). Also found in this study was a statistically
significantly higher percentage of micronucleated mucosal cells in the exposed
group compared with the control group (0.91% + or - 0.47 versus 0.25% + or -
0.22). [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p.
51 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Mean baseline PEFR /(peak expiratory flow rate)/ declined by about 2% over a
10-wk period in a group of 24 physical therapy students who dissected cadavers
for 3-hr periods/wk ... . Estimates of breathing zone formaldehyde concn ranged from 0.49-0.93 ppm
(geometric mean 0.72 + or - 1.22 ppm). PEFR, the only pulmonary function
variable measured in this study, was measured before & after each exposure
period. Postexposure PEFR means were 1-3% lower than preexposure PEFR means
during the first 4 wk, but this difference was not apparent during the last 6
wk. Fourteen wk after the end of the 10-wk period, the mean PEFR for the group
returned to the preexposure baseline value. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 53 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... evaluated the immunologic response of asthmatic subjects exposed to
urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI)
off-gas products. Subjects consisted of 23 individuals with a history of
asthmatic symptoms attributed to UFFI & 4 individuals (controls) with asthma
unrelated to UFFI by-products. Subjects were exposed to one of the following:
room air (placebo) for 30 min; 1 ppm formaldehyde gas for 3 hr; UFFI particles (4
um, 0.5 particles/ml) for 3 hr, commencing 48 hr after formaldehyde gas exposure; & UFFI off-gas
products for 3 hr, commencing 48 hr after UFFI particle exposure. There were no
significant alterations in any of the white blood cell populations ... .
However, there was a significant incr in the % & absolute number of
eosinophils & basophils in the subject (who also lived in UFFI-homes) after
exposure to UFFI in the exposure chamber when compared to the white blood cell
values obtained before chamber exposure to UFFI. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 66 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Occupational exposures to formaldehyde have been assoc with dermal
irritation and the diagnosis of allergic contact dermatitis by patch testing.
Reported historical percentages of subjects with skin problems showing positive
responses to formaldehyde in patch tests
performed by dermatologists using aqueous soln with 1 or 2% formaldehyde incl 7.8% in North America
between 1992 and 1994 ... 1.6% in a 1983-1984 Swedish study ... 2.6% in a
1988-1989 European study ... and 3.7% in a 1990-1994 Polish study ... . Lack of
case-specific exposure info for these patients precludes the determination of
the degree to which sensitization may have been caused by direct dermal contact
to formaldehyde in liquids or by contact
with formaldehyde gas in air, but the
widespread use of formaldehyde or formaldehyde-releasing chemicals in cosmetics
and cleaning agents ... suggest that the dermal route of exposure may be the
more important sensitizing route. [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological
Profile for Formaldehyde p. 69 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... measured elevated levels of formaldehyde-specific IgE in 24/62 8-yr old
children who were students in three particle board-paneled classrooms with est
formaldehyde air concn of 0.075, 0.069,
and 0.043 ppm. In a health survey, the children reported headaches (29/62),
fatigue (21/62), dry nasal mucosa (9/62), rhinitis (23/62) cough (15/62), and
nosebleeds (14/62). Sums of numbers of children with each of nine symptoms for
each classroom decr with decr formaldehyde conc (49, 47, and 24,
respectively for the 0.075-, 0.069-, and 0.043-ppm classrooms), but the
investigators reported that elevated levels of specific IgE did not correlate
with the number and severity of symptoms. The children were moved to a new
school without particle board paneling and were evaluated again, 3 mo after
moving. Est formaldehyde concn in the
new classrooms were 0.029, 0.023, and 0.026 ppm. The numbers of children
reporting symptoms decr significantly compared with premoving reporting figures,
and mean serum levels of formaldehyde-specific IgE, measured in 20 of
the children, declined significantly compared with premoving mean levels.
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 74
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... investigated the correlation between formaldehyde-induced contact dermatitis and
granulocyte chemiluminescence resulting from free-radical release in healthy and
formaldehyde-sensitive patients.
Thirteen patients with contact dermatitis who were occupationally exposed to
formaldehyde and five healthy volunteers
participated in the study. All subjects underwent skin-prick tests for common
allergens as well as a histamine inhalation provocation test. Subjects were
exposed to 0.5 mg/m3 (0.41 ppm) formaldehyde for 2 hr, and peak expiratory
flow was measured immediately before exposure, at 60 and 120 min of exposure,
and at 6 and 21 hr after completion of exposure. In formaldehyde-sensitive patients, skin-prick
tests and total serum IgE were normal; no antiformaldehyde IgE was detected. In
formaldehyde-sensitive patients,
peripheral blood granulocyte chemiluminescence significantly incr within 30 min
of exposure commencement, and remained elevated 24 hr later, compared to initial
values. Granulocyte chemiluminescence did not incr in healthy patients.
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 75
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... measured the formation of DNA-protein cross links in peripheral white
blood cells of occupationally exposed workers (n=12) & unexposed controls
(n=8). The avg length of ... exposure was 13 yr. ... Venous blood samples were
collected ... . Personal & room concn of formaldehyde were collected at various periods
during the working day among the exposed subjects, with formaldehyde room concn ranging from 1.38-1.6
ppm. Personal monitoring devices indicated formaldehyde concn of 2.8-3.1 ppm during peak
work & an avg concn of 1.46 ppm at times when work was usually completed.
Exposure to formaldehyde resulted in a
significant incr in the incidence of DNA-protein cross links. Mean ...
incidences in exposed & nonexposed workers were 28 + or - 6 & 22 + or -
6%, respectively. Within the exposed workers group, technicians had
significantly greater levels of DNA-protein cross links than physicians (32.3 +
or - 4.3 & 26.3 + or - 4.4%, respectively). A linear relationship between yr
of exposure & DNA-protein cross links formation was also detected. When the
data were analyzed considering worker smoking habits, DNA-protein cross links
was consistently elevated among formaldehyde-exposed versus corresponding
controls (p=0.03). [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for
Formaldehyde p. 86 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The finding of nasal tumors in rodents exposed to high levels of airborne
formaldehyde in the early 1980s ... led
to a concern for cancer effect in occupationally exposed workers. There are now
more than 40 epidemiology studies examining the potential for occupational formaldehyde exposure to cause cancer in
humans. The studies include cohort mortality studies of formaldehyde-exposed industrial workers,
cohort mortality studies of formaldehyde-exposed professionals or medical
specialists, & case-control studies that looked for assoc between
occupational exposure to formaldehyde
& cancers of the nose, pharynx, or lung. ... Although some of the
epidemiological studies have found some scattered evidence for extra-respiratory
site cancers in groups of formaldehyde-exposed workers, the data are not
consistent across studies & adjustment for potential confounding cancer risk
factors has not often been possible. Most, if not all reviewers, have agreed
that cancer of the respiratory tract, particularly the upper respiratory tract,
is more biologically plausible than formaldehyde-induced cancer at distant sites
given the reactivity of formaldehyde,
the capacity of tissues to metabolize formaldehyde, & the results from chronic
rodent inhalation studies showing that formaldehyde-induced nonneoplastic &
neoplastic effects are restricted to the upper respiratory tract with exposures
to concn below 5-10 ppm. Accordingly, the meta-analyses of the human data have
focused on the findings for respiratory cancer deaths in occupationally exposed
humans. [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde
p. 89 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... describe the case of a 58-yr old man who swallowed 4 ounces of formalin (517 mg formaldehyde/kg) in a suicide attempt. The man
was found unconscious by a co-worker about 1 hr after his shift began. In the
emergency room, the subject regained consciousness but was lethargic. Lab
results indicated significant acidosis. Approx 3 hr after ingesting the formalin, the patient complained of abdominal
pain & began retching without emesis; he was admitted for observation &
treated with ethanol. The patient's abdominal pains became more severe & he
had difficulty breathing. At 5.5 hr after ingestion, the patient became obtund,
& both his respiratory rate & blood pressure fell significantly; he was
intubated & placed on 100% oxygen. Shortly thereafter, the patient began to
experience seizures; treatment with diazepam & phenytoin was unproductive,
but pancuronium was effective in treating the seizures. IV bicarbonate &
ethanol therapies were begun after the seizures started. The patient was
transported for dialysis, but on arrival, had clinical signs of intravascular
coagulopathy. He subsequently sustained a cardiac arrest from which he could not
be revived. At autopsy, the patient's stomach was hard, white, & leathery;
the esophagus & intestines appeared to be normal.
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 113
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A 55-yr old woman and a 34-yr old man ingested, with suicidal intent, an
unknown amt of what was reported to have been formalin ... . The female patient was found in
a coma and admitted to the hospital with shock (systolic blood pressure 50 mm
Hg), respiratory insufficiency, and metabolic acidosis. The male patient, who
had a history of alcohol abuse, was also hospitalized with shock (systolic blood
pressure 60 mm Hg), respiratory insufficiency, and metabolic acidosis. Both
patients underwent hemodialysis and hemofiltration treatment. Analysis of the
formaldehyde samples ingested by both
patients showed no evidence that these products contained methanol, although it
was expected to have been detected. A chemical-toxicological screening /of blood
samples/ indicated that no drugs other than formaldehyde had been ingested ... . Three wk
after ingestion of formaldehyde, the
female patient died of cardiac failure refractory to catecholamine therapy. The
male patient developed adult respiratory distress syndrome and died 8 wk after
formaldehyde ingestion with signs of
cardiac failure. [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for
Formaldehyde p. 113 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Human lymphoblast mutants at the X-linked hprt locus have been examined by
Southern blot, Northern blot & DNA sequence analysis. A previous study had
shown that approx a third of the spontaneously arising mutants & half those
induced by formaldehyde showed no
alteration in restriction fragment pattern & thus were classified as point
mutation. In this report, these point mutants fall into 4 catagories: normal
size & amount of RNA, normal size but reduced amounts, reduced size RNA or
no RNA. Sequence analyses of cDNAs prepared from hprt mRNAs were performed on 1
spontaneous & 7 formaldehyde induced
mutants were base substitutions, all of which occurred at AT base-pairs. There
was an apparent hot spot, in that 4/6 independent mutants were AT----CG
transversions at one specific site. The remaining mutant had lost exon 8.
[Liber HL et al; Mutat Res 226 (1): 31-7 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Human Toxicity Values:
The probable mean lethal adult dose is 1-2 oz. [Ellenhorn,
M.J., S. Schonwald, G. Ordog, J. Wasserberger. Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology:
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and
Wilkins, 1997. 1214]**PEER REVIEWED**
Skin, Eye and Respiratory Irritations:
Contact with the skin causes irritation, tanning effect, and allergic
sensitization. Contact with eyes causes irritation, itching, & lacrimation.
... [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills:
Formaldehyde p.2 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde vapor is very irritating
to the mucous membranes and toxic to animals, including man.
[Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World
Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British Crop Protection Council, 1994.
525]**PEER REVIEWED**
Medical Surveillance:
Consider the skin, eyes, & resp tract in any placement or periodic
examination, esp if the patient has a history of allergies.
[Sittig, M. Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and
Carcinogens, 1985. 2nd ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation, 1985.
464]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Whenever medical surveillance is indicated, in
particular when exposure to a carcinogen has occurred, ad hoc decisions should
be taken concerning ... /cytogenetic and/or other/ tests that might become
useful or mandatory. /Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R.,
H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan,
L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the
Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon,
France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1979. 23]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... No biologic monitoring techniques exist at present, either for the
reliable determineation of formaldehyde
levels in tissue or for the determination of formaldehyde adducts formed with
macromolecules. Techniques are under development for nonspecific monitoring of
exposure through periodic assessment of chromosome damage (micronucleus
formation or sister chromatid exchange frequency) in workers exposed to formaldehyde. [Rom, W.N.
(ed.). Environmental and Occupational Medicine. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little,
Brown and Company, 1992. 868]**PEER REVIEWED**
Preemployment baseline data should be recorded for the respiratory tract,
liver, and skin condition of any worker who will be exposed to formaldehyde. Thereafter, periodic monitoring
should be conducted to detect symptoms of pulmonary or skin sensitization or
effects on the liver. [Ellenhorn, M.J., S. Schonwald, G.
Ordog, J. Wasserberger. Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology: Diagnosis and Treatment
of Human Poisoning. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1997.
1217]**PEER REVIEWED**
The assessment of formaldehyde
exposure can be accomplished through measurement of the metabolite formic acid.
Formic acid is also an endogenously produced substance formed by the degradation
of glycine. There was no information in the literature that showed a correlation
between urinary formic acid levels & formaldehyde exposure levels. This measurement
is also a poor indicator of the extent of formaldehyde absorption, due to the high
endogenous levels of formic acid. Urine Reference Ranges: Normal- normal
population level: 21 mg/l (endogenously produced formic acid); Exposed- not
established; Toxic- not established. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry,
S.S. Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor
& Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 714]**PEER REVIEWED**
Respiratory Symptom Questionnaires: Questionnaires published by the American
Thoracic Society (ATS) & the British Medical Research Council have proven
useful for identifying people with chronic bronchitis. Certain pulmonary
function tests such as the FEV1 have been found to be better predictors of
chronic airflow obstruction. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S.
Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor &
Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 716]**PEER REVIEWED**
Chest Radiography: Chest radiographs are widely used to assess pulmonary
disease. They are useful for detecting early lung cancer in asymptomatic people,
& especially for detecting peripheral tumors such as adenocarcinomas.
However, even though OSHA mandates this test for exposure to some toxicants such
asbestos, experts' views on the risk-to-benefit ratio in detection of pulmonary
disease conflict, so routine annual chest x-rays are not recommended for all
people. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S. Leffingwell (eds.)
Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor & Francis
Philadelphia, PA. 2000 716]**PEER REVIEWED**
Pulmonary Function Tests: The tests that have been found to be practical for
population monitoring include: Spirometry & expiratory flow-volume curves;
Determination of lung volumes; Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide;
Single-breath nitrogen washout; Inhalation challenge tests; Serial measurements
of peak expiratory flow; Exercise testing. [Ryan, R.P., C.E.
Terry, S.S. Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2.
Taylor & Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 717]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Urine Albumin: Albuminuria has been shown to be a specific marker of
glomerular dysfunction. Tubular damage, however, can also result in increased
levels of albumin in the urine. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S.
Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor &
Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 715]**PEER REVIEWED**
Urinary Beta-2-Microglobulin &/or Retinal Binding Protein: Measurements
for the presence of either of these low molecular weight proteins are useful in
detection of early impairment of proximal tubular function. However,
beta-2-microglobulin is unstable at urinary pH <6, & may degrade in the
bladder prior to collection & subsequent neutralization of the urine sample.
Measurement of retinal binding protein appears to be a better marker for early
tubular dysfunction due to its stability in the urine subsequent to collection
& analysis. However, retinal binding protein is produced in the liver &
not a constitutive protein of the kidney, so that its presence in the kidney
provides only indirect evidence of tubular damage. [Ryan,
R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S. Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed.
Volumes 1-2. Taylor & Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 715]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Urinary Enzyme N-Acetylglucosaminidase: This lysosomal enzyme has shown
promise in assessment of subclinical nephrotoxic injury. This enzyme is not
normally filtered at the glomerulus due to its high molecular weight. In the
absence of glomerular injury, this enzyme will be detected in the urine as a
result of leakage or exocytosis from damaged, stimulated, or exfoliated renal
cells. The sensitivity of measurement for this enzyme has not been thoroughly
studied, but it's usefulness has shown some promise. However, this enzyme is
unstable at urinary pH >8, which could diminish the sensitivity of the
measurement due to enzyme degradation. [Ryan, R.P., C.E.
Terry, S.S. Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2.
Taylor & Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 716]**PEER
REVIEWED**
DNA-Protein Crosslinks: Measurement of DNA-protein crosslinks in white blood
cells may be a useful test for assessing formaldehyde exposure. In addition,
measurement of these crosslinks in other formaldehyde sensitive tissues, such as the
upper respiratory tract, may be a useful indicator of formaldehyde exposure. However, other
toxicants may cause similar crosslinks, so that the specificity of this test for
assessing only formaldehyde exposure is
questionable. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S. Leffingwell
(eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor & Francis
Philadelphia, PA. 2000 715]**PEER REVIEWED**
Routine Urinalysis: Performing a routine urinalysis including parameters such
as specific gravity, glucose, & microscopic exam may be useful for assessing
renal toxicity. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S. Leffingwell
(eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor & Francis
Philadelphia, PA. 2000 716]**PEER REVIEWED**
Urinary Alpha & Pi Isoenzymes of Glutathione S-Transferase:
Radio-immunological & Elisa techniques have been developed for quantitation
of /alpha/ & /pi/ isoenzymes of glutathione S-transferase, which are
constitutive proteins in the kidney. The /alpha/ isoenzyme is located only in
the proximal tubule, while the /pi/ isoenzyme is located in the distal
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, & the collecting ducts of the kidney.
Damage to epithelial cell membranes can result in the increased excretion of
these isoenzymes in the urine. This test for assessing renal tubular damage
appears to have many advantages over other available tests, such as: (1) the
/alpha/ & /pi/ isoenzymes are constitutive proteins in the kidney; (2) these
isoenzymes are stable in the urine; (3) the test is simple & reproducible;
& (4) due to selective localization of the isoenzymes, differential
diagnosis of specific tubular damage is possible. In addition, increased levels
of these isoenzymes were seen in patients previously exposed to nephrotoxicants
where conventional tests for kidney function were normal, indicating a high
degree of sensitivity. [Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry, S.S.
Leffingwell (eds.) Toxicology Desk Reference 5th ed. Volumes 1-2. Taylor &
Francis Philadelphia, PA. 2000 716]**PEER REVIEWED**
Populations at Special Risk:
Mean formaldehyde levels are highest
in hospital autopsy rooms compared with other commercial settings. /Hospital
autopsy workers are possibly exposed/. [Ellenhorn, M.J., S.
Schonwald, G. Ordog, J. Wasserberger. Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology: Diagnosis
and Treatment of Human Poisoning. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins,
1997. 1214]**PEER REVIEWED**
Release of /formaldehyde/ vapors in
mobile homes has been associated with headache & pulmonary & dermal
irritation. /Occupants of mobile homes are possibly exposed/.
[Ellenhorn, M.J., S. Schonwald, G. Ordog, J. Wasserberger.
Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology: Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. 2nd
ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1997. 1214]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Two populations of humans have received considerable attention in the
literature as being particularly sensitive to formaldehyde exposure following inhalation
and/or dermal routes. The first population is asthmatics, and concern focuses on
the changes in lung function parameters that formaldehyde may produce ... . Most of these
studies concluded that there is no evidence of incr airway reactivity as a
result of formaldehyde exposure in
either normal or asthmatic individuals. ... The second population of potential
concern is people with dermal sensitization ... Formaldehyde liquid, but neither the gaseous
phase nor formalin, is considered to be
a dermal sensitizer ... . Anaphylactic reactions have been reported ... . Dermal
allergic reactions have also been reported in doctors and nurses exposed to
formaldehyde ... as well as in
fiberglass workers ... . [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile
for Formaldehyde p. 236 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Workers in industries where formaldehyde is used or released may receive
potentially high exposures. Members of the general population who live in newly
constructed homes or homes where pressed wood products have recently been
installed may be exposed to high levels of formaldehyde by inhalation for short periods
of time until the latent formaldehyde
has been released. Exposure in mobile homes are expected to be higher than
conventional homes due to their lower rate of air exchange ... . Members of the
general population that handle large amt of permanent press fabrics treated with
formaldehyde-releasing resins may also
receive potentially high exposures. The use of some cosmetics, such as nail
hardeners, may result in high short-term exposure.
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 311
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Smokers and persons who live in a home with a cigarette smoker also may be
exposed to higher levels of formaldehyde. Environmental tobacco smoke,
which is a combination of diluted sidestream smoke released form a cigarette's
burning end and mainstream smoke exhaled by an active smoker, can contribute
10-25% (0.1-1 mg/day) of the total average indoor exposure to formadehyde ... .
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehye p. 311
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Probable Routes of Human Exposure:
... /VAPORS/ GIVEN OFF DURING HOT MOLDING OF SYNTH RESINS (/IS A/ COMMON
SOURCE OF EXPOSURE) ... A SURVEY OF 6 FUNERAL HOMES ... REVEALED MEAN CONCN, IN
DIFFERENT ESTABLISHMENTS, BETWEEN 0.25 & 1.39 PPM. ... /EXPOSURES ARE
ENCOUNTERED/ IN PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE
RESIN MOULDING PLANT ... /FROM WHICH/ CHRONIC AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION LOWERED FORCED
EXPIRATORY VOL/FORCED VOL CAPACITY RATIO & EYE, NOSE & THROAT IRRITATION
& LOWER RESP TRACT SYMPTOMS /HAVE BEEN OBSERVED/.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 5th
ed. Cincinnati, OH:American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
1986. 276]**PEER REVIEWED**
... /EXPOSURES TO/ FORMALDEHYDE VAPOR
EMISSIONS IN PERMANENT-PRESS FABRICS INDUSTRY (8 PLANTS) /HAVE BEEN REPORTED IN
WHICH/ CONCN RANGING ... FROM 0.3 TO 2.7 PPM (IN SEWING AREA) WITH AVG OF 0.68
PPM /WERE DETECTED/. COMPLAINTS CONSISTED OF ANNOYING ODOR (ODOR THRESHOLD,
BELOW 1.0 PPM), CONSTANT PRICKLING IRRITATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES &
DISTURBED SLEEP. [American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and
Biological Exposure Indices. 5th ed. Cincinnati, OH:American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1986. 276]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH (NOES Survey 1981-1983) has statistically estimated that 1,329,322
workers (441,902 of these are female) are potentially exposed to formaldehyde in the US(1). The NOES Survey
does not include farm workers(SRC). Occupational exposure to formaldehyde may occur through inhalation and
dermal contact with this compound at workplaces where formaldehyde is produced or used(2).
Monitoring data indicate that the general population may be exposed to formaldehyde via inhalation of ambient air,
ingestion of food, and dermal contact with cosmetic and aerosol products
containing formaldehyde(2).
[(1) NIOSH; National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES)
(1983) (2) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of
Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 243 (1995)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Humans are exposed to formaldehyde
from a variety of sources. The major source of atmospheric discharge is from
combustion processes specifically from auto emissions and also from the
photooxidation of hydrocarbons in auto emissions(1,2). Additional exposure to
formaldehyde emissions comes from its
use as an embalming fluid in anatomy labs, morgues, etc and its use as a
fumigant and sterilant(1). Resin treated fabric, rugs, paper, etc and materials
such as particle board and plywood which use resin adhesives and foam insulation
release formaldehyde which may build up
in homes and occupational atmospheres(1,2). Contact with industrial waste water,
especially from lumber related operations where formaldehyde is used in adhesives, has
resulted in the Pacific Northwest, Northeast, parts of Texas, and lumber areas
of the south(1)(SRC). The estimated daily intake of formaldehyde among exposed Finnish workers is
3000 ug, whereas heavily exposed workers (particle-board and glue production,
foundry work) is 10,000 ug(3). [(1) Kitchens JF et al;
Investigation of Selected Potential Environmental Contaminants: Formaldehyde p.
22-98 USEPA 560/2-76-009 (1976) (2) National Research Council; Formaldehyde and
Other Aldehydes p. 2-1 to 5-96 USEPA 600/6-82-002 (1982) (3) Hemminki K, Vainio
H; Human Exposure to Potentially Carcinogenic Compounds. IARC Sci Publ 59: 37-45
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In a 12-week study of exposure in a gross anatomy lab of a medical school,
44% of breathing room samples and 11% of ambient air samples were >1.0 ppm
the ceiling recommended by ACGIH; Half the breathing zone samples were between
0.6-1.0 ppm and the range was 0.3-2.63 ppm(1). A 1976 report estimates that 8000
US workers were potentially exposed to formaldehyde during its production(3). A more
recent estimate of the number of exposed workers in industries producing and
using formaldehyde and its derivatives
range from 1.4-1.75 million(2). Concentrations of formaldehyde in occupational areas dating from
the 1960's and early 1970's are: textile plant 0-2.7 ppm, 0.68 ppm avg; garment
factory 0.9-2.7 ppm; clothing store 0.9-3.3 ppm; laminating plant 0.04-10 ppm;
funeral homes 0.09-5.26 ppm, 0.25-1.39 ppm avg; resin manufacture and paper
production 16-30 ppm; paper conditioning 0.9-1.6 ppm; wood processing 31.2 ppm
max(2). Concns in occupational settings dating from the late 70's are: textile
plants 0.1-0.5 ppm, 0.2 ppm avg; shoe factory 0.9-2.7 ppm, 1.9 ppm avg; particle
board plant 0.1-4.9 ppm, 1.15 ppm avg; plywood plant 0.1-1.2 ppm, 0.35 ppm avg;
wooden furniture manufacturing plant 0.1-5.4 ppm, 1.35 ppm avg; adhesive plants
0.8-3.5 ppm, 1.75 ppm avg; foundries 0.05-2.0 ppm, 0.6 ppm avg; construction
sites 0.5-7.0 ppm, 2.8 ppm avg; hospitals and clinics 0.05-3.5 ppm, 0.7 ppm
avg(2). More recent survey results for occupational environments include:
fertilizer production 0.2-1.9 ppm; dyestuffs <0.1-5.8 ppm; textile
manufacture <0.1-1.4 ppm; resins (foundry) <0.1-5.5 ppm; bronze foundry
0.12-0.8 ppm; iron foundry <0.02-18.3 ppm; treated paper 0.14-0.99 ppm;
hospital autopsy room 2.2-7.9 ppm; plywood industry 1.0-2.5 ppm; urea-formaldehyde foam applicators <0.08-2.4
ppm(4). [(1) Skisak, CM; Amer Ind Hyg Assoc J 44: 948-50
(1983) (2) IARC; Monograph. Some Industrial Chemicals and Dyestuffs 29: 345-89
(1982) (3) National Research Council; Formaldehyde and other Aldehydes p.2-1 to
5-96 USEPA 600/6-82-002 (1982) (4) Bernstein RS et al; Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 45:
778-85 (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Potential occupational exposure to formaldehyde are as follows: agricultural
workers, anatomists, beauticians, biologists, bookbinders, botanists, chemical
production workers, cosmetic formulators, crease-resistant textile finishers,
disinfectant makers, disinfectors, dress-goods shop personnel, electrical
insulation makers, embalmers, embalming fluid makers, fireproofers, formaldehyde production workers, formaldehyde resin makers, foundry employees,
fumigators, fur processors, furniture makers, glue and adhesive makers, hide
preservers, histology technicians (including necropsy and autopsy technicians),
ink makers, lacquerers and lacquer makers, medical personnel (including
pathologists), mirror manufacturers, paper makers, particle-board makers,
photographic film makers, plastic workers, plywood makers, rubber makers,
taxidermists, textiles mordanters and printers, textiles waterproofers, varnish
workers, wood preservers(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the
Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland:
WHO 62: 225 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The avg concn of formaldehyde in
workroom air in formaldehyde and resin
manufacturing plants ranged from 0.1-14.2 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom air of plywood mills,
particle-board mills, furniture factories, other wood product and paper mills
ranged from 0.08-7.4 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom air in textile mills
and garment factories ranged from 0.1 to 1.9 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom air in foundries and
other industrial facilities ranged from 0.04 to 38.2 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn
of formaldehyde in workroom air in
mortuaries, hospitals, and laboratories ranged from 0.05 to 4.2 mg/cu m(1). The
avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom
air in building sites, agriculture, forestry, and misc other activities ranged
from <0.1 to 4.3 mg/cu m(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the
Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland:
WHO 62: 226-41 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Cigarette smoke and products of combustion contain formaldehyde(1). Cigarette smoke contains 15
to 20 mg formaldehyde per cigarette(1).
Avg formaldehyde exposure from passive
smoking is between 0.23 to 0.27 ppm(1). A 'pack-a-day' smoker may inhale as much
as 0.4-2.0 mg formaldehyde(1).
[(1) Bingham E et al, eds; Patty's Toxicology. 5th ed. NY,
NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 5: 980-3 (2001)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Several studies have been conducted to determine exposure of students in
laboratories(1). The concn of formaldehyde in the breathing zone at
dissecting tables and in the ambient air in a medical school in the United
States was found to be >1.2 mg/cu m in 44% of the breathing zone samples and
11 ambient air samples; 50% of the breathing zone samples contained 0.7-1.2
mg/cu m, with a range of 0.4-3.2 mg/cu m(1). During the 1982-82 academic year,
the airborne concn of formaldehyde at a
university in the US was 7-16.5 ppm in the laboratory, 1.97-2.62 ppm in the
stockroom, and <1 ppm in the public hallway(1). In another study, of 253
samples of air taken during laboratory dissection classes at a university in the
US, 97 contained concns above the detection limit of 0.01 mg/cu m; all but four
samples had levels <1.2 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn detected was 0.5 mg/cu
m(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 226-41
(1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Average Daily Intake:
AIR INTAKE: Assume 1 to 100 ug/cu m(1), 20 ug to 2,000 ug formaldehyde(SRC). [(1)
IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 242 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In Sweden between Dec 1986 to Aug 1987, the mean yearly exposure to formaldehyde from air pollution was 1.2 ug/cu
m(1). The estimated daily exposure of the Finnish population to formaldehyde from community air is 100 ug and
from the home environment, 1,000 ug(2). [(1) Bostrom CE et
al; Environ Health Perspect 102: 39-47 (1994) (2) Hemminki K, Vainio H; Human
Exposure to Potentially Carcinogenic Compounds. IARC Sci Publ 59: 37-45
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Minimum Fatal Dose Level:
Approximate Minimum Lethal Dose (MLD) (150-lb man): 30 ml
[Arena, J. M. Poisoning: Toxicology, Symptoms, Treatments.
Fourth Edition. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1979.
97]**PEER REVIEWED**
Male single oral ingestion 517 mg/kg [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 116 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Emergency Medical Treatment:
Emergency Medical Treatment:
EMT Copyright Disclaimer:
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MICROMEDEX, SHOULD BE CONSULTED FOR ASSISTANCE IN THE DIAGNOSIS OR
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of Micromedex' copyrights and is strictly prohibited.
The following Overview, *** FORMALDEHYDE ***, is relevant for this
HSDB record chemical.
Life Support:
o This overview assumes that basic life support measures
have been instituted.
Clinical Effects:
SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
0.2.1.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Formaldehyde may be irritating to the eyes, skin, and
mucous membranes. Ingestion may cause corrosive injury
to the gastrointestinal mucosa, with nausea, vomiting,
pain, hematemesis, and perforation. Systemic effects
include CNS depression, seizures, coma, jaundice,
albuminuria, hematuria, anuria, and metabolic acidosis.
Acute health effects include burning in the eyes, nose,
throat; skin rashes, nausea, coughing and chest
tightness. Sensitive individuals may have reactions at
concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm.
o Respiratory tract irritation, rhinitis, anosmia, cough,
dyspnea, wheezing, tracheitis, bronchitis,
laryngospasm, pulmonary edema, headache, weakness,
dizziness, and palpitations may result from inhalation.
o Dermatitis, brownish discoloration of the skin,
urticaria, and pustulovesicular eruptions, may develop
from dermal exposure. Concentrated solutions can
cause coagulation necrosis.
o Irritation, lacrimation, and conjunctivitis may develop
with exposure to vapors. Eye exposure to solutions
with high formaldehyde concentrations may produce
severe corneal opacification and loss of vision.
Solutions containing low formaldehyde concentrations
may produce transient discomfort and irritation.
o This management includes information pertaining to the
toxicity of formaldehyde, a one carbon aldehyde, as
well as formalin, a mixture of formaldehyde in various
concentrations of methanol.
VITAL SIGNS
0.2.3.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Shock may develop with severe exposures. Tachypnea may
develop in patients with metabolic acidosis. Reduction
in body temperature may be seen.
HEENT
0.2.4.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o IRRITATION of the eyes, nose, and throat may occur
following exposure to formaldehyde OR fumes from
urea-formaldehyde foam and adhesive resins.
o Corneal opacification and loss of vision may occur
following direct eye splash exposure to solutions
containing high concentrations of formaldehyde.
Transient discomfort and irritation may result from eye
exposure to solutions containing low concentrations of
formaldehyde.
CARDIOVASCULAR
0.2.5.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hypotension and cardiovascular collapse may occur with
severe ingestion.
RESPIRATORY
0.2.6.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Inhalation of formaldehyde vapors at elevated
concentrations may result in upper respiratory tract
irritation and coughing. Severe exposure may result in
serious lower respiratory effects, such as bronchitis,
pulmonary edema, or pneumonia. Reactive airways may
develop in susceptible individuals.
o Respiratory distress and ARDS has been reported
following ingestion or transdermal absorption of
formaldehyde-containing compounds.
NEUROLOGIC
0.2.7.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Lethargy and coma may occur following large ingestions
or marked inhalation exposure.
0.2.7.2 CHRONIC EXPOSURE
o Chronic exposure may result in malaise, headache,
sleeping disturbances and irritability.
GASTROINTESTINAL
0.2.8.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Nausea, vomiting, and severe abdominal pain may occur
following ingestion. Corrosive gastritis, hematemesis,
and edema and ulceration of the esophagus may occur.
Strictures and perforation are possible delayed
complications.
HEPATIC
0.2.9.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hepatotoxicity has been associated with inhalational
exposure in animals and has been suggested to occur in
humans.
o Hyperbilirubinemia has been reported following
ingestion.
o Biliary sclerosis occurred following formalin injection
into a hydatid cyst.
GENITOURINARY
0.2.10.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Nephritis and acute renal failure may occur.
Membranous nephropathy has been associated with
formaldehyde exposure.
ACID-BASE
0.2.11.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Lactic acidosis may occur.
HEMATOLOGIC
0.2.13.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Intravascular hemolysis has been reported in dialysis
patients receiving doses of formaldehyde during
treatment.
DERMATOLOGIC
0.2.14.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Allergic dermatitis and rash may occur.
IMMUNOLOGIC
0.2.19.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Antibodies to formaldehyde (Types I and II reactions)
have been measured in exposed persons with clinical
effects ranging from irritation to severe
hypersensitivity reactions. Type IV reactions may
result in allergic contact dermatitis. Immunologic
reactions may be delayed by hours to months.
o Asthma-like signs and symptoms have been reported.
Evidence of formaldehyde sensitization or allergy
causing true asthma is inconclusive. Respiratory
effects do not consistently correlate with the
development of formaldehyde-specific immunoglobulins.
o Membranous nephropathy has been associated with
immunologic reaction to suspected formaldehyde
exposure.
0.2.19.2 CHRONIC EXPOSURE
o Allergic contact dermatitis, eczema and other signs
have been attributed to formaldehyde sensitivity.
REPRODUCTIVE HAZARDS
o Formaldehyde has not been shown definitely to be
teratogenic in animals. Formaldehyde probably presents
little or no risk as a potential human teratogen.
o Menstrual disorders have been reported in women
occupationally exposed to formaldehyde, but these
results are controversial. In experimental animal
studies, some effects on spermatogenesis have been
reported.
o Occupational exposure at recommended limits is not
thought to present a reproductive risk. Formaldehyde
exposure among female hospital workers did not correlate
with an increase in spontaneous abortion in one study,
but did correlate in another.
1. Low-birthweight children have been reported in female
workers exposed to urea-formaldehyde resin, but studies
are inconclusive. Formaldehyde appears to cross the
placental barrier in mice.
CARCINOGENICITY
0.2.21.2 HUMAN OVERVIEW
o Formaldehyde is a probable human carcinogen (IARC 2A
Limited evidence in humans and sufficient evidence in
animals). In another rating system formaldehyde is
classified as B1: probable human carcinogen. Basis
for Classification: Based on limited evidence in
humans, and sufficient evidence in animals (HSDB,
2002).
1. Human data include nine studies that show
statistically significant associations between
site-specific respiratory neoplasms and exposure to
formaldehyde or formaldehyde-containing products
(HSDB, 2002). Occupational exposure to formaldehyde
has been linked to the development of buccal and
nasopharyngeal metaplasia/neoplasia, and to a lesser
extent cancers of the nasal cavities.
2. Formaldehyde's role in lower respiratory tract cancer
etiology has not been substantiated. Consensus on
data collection and analysis methods will be necessary
to evaluate the link between formaldehyde and lung
cancer.
3. ANIMAL STUDIES - An increased incidence of nasal
squamous cell carcinomas was observed in long-term
inhalation studies in rats and in mice. The
classification of B1 is further supported by in vitro
genotoxicity data and formaldehyde's structural
relationships to other carcinogenic aldehydes such as
acetaldehyde (HSDB, 2002).
GENOTOXICITY
o Formaldehyde appears to be mutagenic. The basis for its
genetic activity is its ability to form cross-links in
DNA and proteins.
Laboratory:
o FORMALDEHYDE PLASMA LEVELS are not widely available, but
may help in dialysis monitoring.
o Monitor acid base status in symptomatic patients. Monitor
liver function tests. Monitor hematocrit and hemoglobin
concentration in dialysis patients repeatedly exposed
parenterally to formaldehyde. Monitor blood METHANOL
levels after significant formalin ingestion.
o Pulmonary function testing and nasal and bronchial
provocation tests may be recommended in patients with
signs and symptoms of reactive airways dysfunction
following inhalation of formaldehyde.
Treatment Overview:
ORAL EXPOSURE
o EMESIS: Ipecac-induced emesis is not recommended
because of the potential for cardiovascular instability.
o DILUTION: Immediately dilute with 4 to 8 ounces (120 to
240 mL) of milk or water (not to exceed 4 ounces/120 mL
in a child).
o After ingestion of concentrated formaldehyde, gastric
lavage with a soft small-bore NG tube may facilitate
removal. Risk of further mucosal injury should be
weighed against potential benefit. Although no data on
adsorption to activated charcoal could be found, it
should be considered following lavage, although it may
obscure endoscopy findings.
o ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry
(240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g
in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12
years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
o MONITOR ECG AND VITAL SIGNS and acid base status.
Monitor methanol levels.
o ENDOSCOPY: Because acid ingestion may cause severe
gastric burns with relatively few initial signs and
symptoms, endoscopic evaluation is recommended within 24
hours in any patient with a definite history of
ingesting a strong acid, even if asymptomatic. If burns
are found, follow 10 to 20 days later with a barium
swallow.
o PHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENT: Corticosteroids are
controversial. Consider use in second degree burns
within 48 hours of ingestion in patients without
gastrointestinal bleeding or evidence of perforation.
Antibiotics are indicated for suspected perforation or
infection and in patients receiving corticosteroids.
o SURGICAL OPTIONS: Initially, if severe esophageal burns
are found a string may be placed in the stomach to
facilitate later dilation. Insertion of a specialized
nasogastric tube after confirmation of a circumferential
burn may prevent strictures. Dilation is indicated
after 2 to 4 weeks if strictures are confirmed; if
unsuccessful, either colonic intraposition or gastric
tube placement may be performed. Consider early
laparotomy in patients with severe esophageal and/or
gastric burns.
o Administer ethanol or fomepizole in patients with
significant methanol levels. HEMODIALYSIS should be
considered in those patients with severe acid-base
disturbances refractory to conventional therapy, or in
cases with significant methanol levels.
o HYPOTENSION: Infuse 10 to 20 mL/kg isotonic fluid,
place in Trendelenburg position. If hypotension
persists, administer dopamine (5 to 20 mcg/kg/min) or
norepinephrine (0.1 to 0.2 mcg/kg/min), titrate to
desired response.
INHALATION EXPOSURE
o INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for
respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing
develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation,
bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and
assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with
beta2 agonist and corticosteroid aerosols.
EYE EXPOSURE
o PREHOSPITAL CARE: Irrigation with sterile water or
saline, a commercial eye irrigation kit, or tap water
should be started prior to admission.
o MEDICAL FACILITY: Irrigate with sterile 0.9% saline for
at least an hour or until the cul-de-sacs are free of
particulate matter and returned to neutrality (confirm
with pH paper).
DERMAL EXPOSURE
o DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash
exposed area thoroughly with soap and water. A
physician may need to examine the area if irritation or
pain persists.
Range of Toxicity:
o INGESTION of as little as 30 mL of a 37% solution of
formaldehyde has resulted in death in an adult.
[Rumack
BH: POISINDEX(R) Information System. Micromedex, Inc., Englewood, CO, 2003; CCIS
Volume 116, edition exp May, 2003. Hall AH & Rumack BH (Eds):TOMES(R)
Information System. Micromedex, Inc., Englewood, CO, 2003; CCIS Volume 116,
edition exp May, 2003.] **PEER REVIEWED**
Antidote and Emergency Treatment:
Decontamination: Dilute with milk or water in alert patients as a first aid
measure may reduce corrosive effects at the scene. If ingestion has occurred
within 1 hr before presentation, gentle gastric aspiration with a soft
nasogastric tube may limit systemic absorption. There is little evidence to
support the use of activated charcoal to absorb formate or formaldehyde. ... Elimination enhancement:
Severe acidosis & deteriorating vital signs are indications for considering
dialysis, but the literature does not contain adequate case studies to guide
treatment. Aggressive sodium bicarbonate therapy & frequent monitoring of
arterial blood gases may be useful. There are no antidotes. Supportive care: 1.
Monitor electrolytes, fluids, acid-base, & kidney function closely. 2. Watch
for signs of GI hemorrhage & perforation with serial vital signs, abdominal
exams, & complete blood counts. 3. Check blood methanol levels & treat
accordingly in formalin ingestions. 4.
Fibrosis of stomach has required partial gastrectomy in the past.
[Ellenhorn, M.J., S. Schonwald, G. Ordog, J. Wasserberger.
Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology: Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. 2nd
ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1997. 1217]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Irrigate eyes with water. Wash contaminated areas of body with soap and
water. Gastric lavage (stomach wash), if swallowed, using 1% ammonium carbonate
and followed by saline catharsis. Oxygen, if indicated.
[ITII. Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety
Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International Technical Information Institute, 1988.
250]**PEER REVIEWED**
Basic Treatment: Skin- Treated as any burn to prevent allergic contact
dermatitis, exposure to formaldehyde or
formaldehyde-containing products should
be minimized. Inhalation- Patients should be removed from exposure. If symptoms
persist, hospitalization may be required. Very high levels (100 ppm) may be
lethal. Pulmonary damage may occur. Oral- high concn of formaldehyde may be irritating to the GI
tract. Ingestion can result in metabolic responses similar to methanol
poisoning. Hemodialysis is efficacious just as in methanol poisoning &
should be considered if metabolic acidosis occurs. [Sullivan,
J.B. Jr., G.R. Krieger (eds.). Hazardous Materials Toxicology-Clinical
Principles of Environmental Health. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1992.
978]**PEER REVIEWED**
Basic treatment: Establish a patent airway. Suction if necessary. Watch for
signs of respiratory insufficiency and assist ventilations if necessary.
Aggressive airway management may be necessary. Administer oxygen by
nonrebreather mask at 10 to 15 L/min. Anticipate seizures and treat if necessary
... . Monitor for shock and treat if necessary ... . Monitor for pulmonary edema
and treat if necessary ... . For eye contamination, flush eyes immediately with
water. Irrigate each eye continuously with normal saline during transport ... .
Do not use emetics. For ingestion, rinse mouth and administer 5 ml/kg up to 200
ml of water for dilution if the patient can swallow, has a strong gag reflex,
and does not drool. Administer activated charcoal ... . /Aldehydes and related
compounds/ [Bronstein, A.C., P.L. Currance; Emergency Care
for Hazardous Materials Exposure. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO. Mosby Lifeline.
1994.,p. 234-35]**PEER REVIEWED**
Advanced treatment: Consider orotracheal or nasotracheal intubation for
airway control in the patient who is unconscious or in respiratory arrest.
Intubation should be considered at the first sign of upper airway obstruction
caused by edema. Positive pressure ventilation techniques with a bag-valve-mask
device may be beneficial. Start an IV with D5W /SRP: "To keep open", minimal
flow rate/. Use lactated Ringer's if signs of hypovolemia are present. Watch for
signs of fluid overload. Treat seizures with diazepam ... . For hypotension with
signs of hypovolemia, administer fluid cautiously. Consider vasopressors if
patient is hypotensive with a normal fluid volume. Watch for signs of fluid
overload ... . Consider drug therapy for pulmonary edema ... . Use proparacaine
hydrochloride to assist eye irrigation ... . /Aldehydes and related compounds/
[Bronstein, A.C., P.L. Currance; Emergency Care for Hazardous
Materials Exposure. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO. Mosby Lifeline. 1994. 235]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Animal Toxicity Studies:
Evidence for Carcinogenicity:
CLASSIFICATION: B1; probable human carcinogen. BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION:
Based on limited evidence in humans, and sufficient evidence in animals. Human
data include nine studies that show statistically significant associations
between site-specific respiratory neoplasms and exposure to formaldehyde or formaldehyde-containing products. An increased
incidence of nasal squamous cell carcinomas was observed in long-term inhalation
studies in rats and in mice. The classification is supported by in vitro
genotoxicity data and formaldehyde's
structural relationships to other carcinogenic aldehydes such as acetaldehyde.
HUMAN CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Limited. ANIMAL CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Sufficient.
[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Integrated Risk
Information System (IRIS) on Formaldehyde (50-00-0) Available from:
http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris on the Substance File List as of March 15,
2000]**PEER REVIEWED**
A2. A2= Suspected human carcinogen. [American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for
Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and BiologicalExposure Indices (BEIs)
for 1995-1996. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1995. 22]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Evaluation: There is limited evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of
formaldehyde. There is sufficient
evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde. Overall evaluation: Formaldehyde is probably carcinogenic to
humans (Group 2A). [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p.
V62 336 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts:
INHALATION ... BY ANIMALS CAUSES PROMPT & SEVERE IRRITATION OF EYES &
RESP TRACT. ... EDEMA & HEMORRHAGES OF ... LUNG, & SIGNS OF HYPEREMIA
& PERIVASCULAR EDEMA IN THE LIVER AND KIDNEYS. [Patty, F.
(ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New
York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 1970]**PEER REVIEWED**
PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF RABBITS TO FORMALDEHYDE CAUSED ACID PHOSPHATASE,
TWEEN-60-ESTERASE, NAPHTHOL-AS-D-ACETATE-ESTERASE, PROLINE-OXIDASE &
HYDROXYPROLINE-2-EPIMERASE ACTIVITIES TO INCREASE & LEUCYL-AMINOPEPTIDASE
& BETA-GLUCURONIDASE TO DECREASE. IT INDUCED BRONCHIAL CELL HYPERPLASIA WITH
HYPERMUCIGENESIS, EXTRUSION OF BRONCHIAL CELLS, BRONCHIOLAR HYPERMUCIGENESIS,
PARCELLARY SQUAMOUS METAPLASIA OR NECROBIOSIS OF EPITHELIA.
[IONESCU J ET AL; MORPHOL EMBRYOL (BUCUR) 24 (3): 232-42
(1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
CD-1 MICE WERE GIVEN UP TO 185 MG/KG BODY WT FORMALDEHYDE BY GAVAGE ON DAYS 6-15 OF
GESTATION. HIGHEST DOSE WAS ... TOXIC TO DAMS, BUT NO EMBRYOTOXICITY OR
TERATOGENICITY WAS SEEN WITH ANY DOSE. [IARC. Monographs on
the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World
Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT.
(Multivolume work).,p. V29 366 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
ACUTE ... EFFECTS ... IN RATS ... /& OTHER EXPTL ANIMALS/ TO LOW (LESS
THAN 1 PPM) OR MODERATE (10-50 PPM) ... /OF/ VAPOR RESULTED IN INCREASED AIRWAY
RESISTANCE, DECR SENSITIVITY OF NASOPALATINE NERVE, IRRITATION OF EYES & OF
RESP SYSTEM, & CHANGES IN HYPOTHALAMUS. EXPOSURE TO HIGH DOSES (ABOVE 100
PPM) ... CAUSED SALIVATION, ACUTE DYSPNEA, VOMITING, CRAMPS & DEATH ... .
[IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for
Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V29 364 (1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
EXPOSURE BY INHALATION FOR UP TO 90 DAYS PRODUCED INTERSTITIAL INFLAMMATION
IN LUNGS OF DOGS, RATS, MONKEYS, RABBITS & GUINEA-PIGS. ... HAIR
DEPIGMENTATION WAS OBSERVED IN BLACK MICE AT SITE OF SC INJECTION OF 100 UG
FORMALDEHYDE. ... MICE TREATED WITH
FORMALDEHYDE ON SKIN DEVELOPED SEVERE
LIVER DAMAGE. [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p.
V29 365 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
GROUPS OF 119-120 MALE & 120 FEMALE FISCHER 344 RATS, 7 WK OF AGE WERE
EXPOSED TO 0, 2, 5.6 OR 14.3 PPM (0, 2.5, 6.9, 17.6 MG/CU M) ... GREATER THAN
97.5% PURE VAPOR BY WHOLE-BODY EXPOSURE FOR 6 HR/DAY ON 5 DAYS/WK FOR UP TO 24
MO, FOLLOWED BY 6 MO OBSERVATION PERIOD. ... LIFE-TABLE ANALYSIS OF ... DATA
REVEALED SIGNIFICANT INCR (P< 0.0167) IN INCIDENCES OF SQUAMOUS-CELL
CARCINOMAS IN /NASAL CAVITY OF RATS/ EXPOSED TO 14.3 PPM FORMALDEHYDE VAPOR; NO OTHER NEOPLASM WAS
INCREASED SIGNIFICANTLY. THE INCIDENCE OF A VARIETY OF NON-NEOPLASTIC LESIONS
WERE SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED IN RATS EXPOSED TO FORMALDEHYDE. [IARC.
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on
Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V29 361 (1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
GROUPS OF 6 MALE CYNOMOLGUS MONKEYS ... & 10 MALE & 10 FEMALE SYRIAN
GOLDEN HAMSTERS WERE EXPOSED TO 0, 0.2, 1.0 OR 3 PPM (0, 0.24, 1.2 OR 3.7 MG/CU
M) FORMALDEHYDE VAPOR (98.8% PURE) FOR
22 HR/DAY ON 7 DAYS/WK FOR 26 WK. SQUAMOUS METAPLASIA OF NASAL TURBINATES WERE
EVIDENT IN 6/6 MONKEYS EXPOSED TO 3 PPM & IN 1/6 EXPOSED TO 1 PPM. ... NO
EXPOSURE-RELATED EFFECTS WERE DEMONSTRATED IN HAMSTERS.
[IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for
Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V29 365 (1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
REPEATED INHALATION EXPOSURE TO VAPORS AT 15 PPM IN MALE CHARLES RIVER CD
RATS & MALE C57BL6/F1 MICE WAS STUDIED. RATS WERE RELATIVELY INSENSITIVE TO
IRRITANT ACTION WHILE MICE WERE MORE SENSITIVE, SHOWING COMPARABLE REDUCTION IN
TIDAL VOL, BUT GREATER DECR IN RESPIRATORY RATE & MINUTE VOL. CARBON DIOXIDE
PRODUCTION AS WELL AS BODY TEMP WERE DECR TO GREATER EXTENT IN MICE THAN IN
RATS. [JAEGER RJ, GEARHART JM; TOXICOLOGY 25 (4): 299-309
(1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
With Salmonella typhimurium, the minimum concn required to induce
8-azaguanine resistance was 170 uM. [Goldmacher VS et al;
Toxicol Epidemiol Mech (Pap Meet) 173-91 (1983)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
15 ppm formaldehyde caused an initial
wave of cell replication in the nasal cavity of mice and rats 18 hr after a 6 hr
exposure. The /percentage/ of replicating cells remained ... elevated for 3-5
days and then began to decrease. Similar elevations occurred following 3 daily
exposures to 6 ppm formaldehyde in rats,
but not mice. ... [Swenberg JA et al; Toxicol Epidemiol Mech
(Pap Meet) 225-36 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... Threshold concn of sensitization effect of /formaldehyde/ in guinea pigs was 0.5 mg/cu m.
... Quantitative changes were seen only in B-lymphocytes, whereas T-lymphocytes
were essentially unchanged. At 3 mg/cu m the sensitization effect was seen in
all the animals. The T-lymphocytes decreased substantially but B-lymphocytes
increased. ... [Dueva LA; Gig Tr Prof Zabol 8: 20-3
(1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... Primary hamster embryo cells were treated by exposure to gaseous formaldehyde or by incorporation into the
medium, a dose-related incr in the frequency of SA7 virus transformation was
produced. ... Length of chemical treatment and the time interval before
subsequent addition of transforming virus was critical, with 2 hr treatment
times being most efficient. ... 2.2 ug/ml produced significantly enhanced viral
transformation. ... [Hatch GG et al; Environ Mutagen 5 (1):
49-57 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... RATS /EXPOSED/ CONTINUOUSLY DURING PREGNANCY TO ... VAPORS (1 MG/CU M)
... /SHOWED/ NO VISIBLE FETAL MALFORMATIONS. ASCORBIC ACID CONTENT OF TREATED
FETUSES WAS LOWER THAN CONTROLS BUT BODY WT WAS INCR. FETAL DNA CONTENT WAS DECR
& RNA CONTENT WAS INCR. [Shepard, T.H. Catalog of
Teratogenic Agents. 5th ed. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1986. 701]**PEER REVIEWED**
GROUPS OF 100 MALE SPRAGUE-DAWLEY RATS WERE EXPOSED FROM 9 WK OF AGE TO (A)
14.3 PPM (17.44 MG/CU M) FORMALDEHYDE
(PURITY UNSPECIFIED) & 10 PPM (16.2 MG/CU M) HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS BEFORE
DILN IN EXPOSURE CHAMBER TO MAXIMIZE FORMATION OF BIS(CHLOROMETHYL)ETHER; (B)
14.1 PPM (17.2 MG/CU M) FORMALDEHYDE
& 9.5 PPM 115.48 MG/CU M) HYDROGEN CHLORIDE NOT MIXED BEFORE INTRODUCTION
INTO ... CHAMBER; (C)14.2 PPM (17.32 MG/CU M) FORMALDEHYDE VAPOR ALONE; (D) HYDROGEN
CHLORIDE GAS ALONE (10.2 PPM); OR (E) AIR (SHAM-EXPOSED CONTROLS). AFTER ... 382
EXPOSURES OVER ... 588 DAYS (19.4 MO), 10 HISTOLOGICALLY CONFIRMED, GROSSLY
VISIBLE NASAL SQUAMOUS-CELL CARCINOMAS WERE OBSERVED IN RATS EXPOSED TO FORMALDEHYDE ALONE; NONE WERE SEEN IN CONTROLS
OR IN RATS EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN CHLORIDE ALONE ... COMBINED EXPOSURE TO FORMALDEHYDE & HYDROGEN CHLORIDE DID NOT
PRODUCE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT INCR IN INCIDENCE OF NASAL SQUAMOUS-CELL
CARCINOMAS OVER THAT OBTAINED WITH FORMALDEHYDE ALONE. ...
[IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for
Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V29 362 (1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
EXPOSURE OF CULTURED MONKEY KIDNEY CELLS TO 1-16 MMOL ... FOR 15 MIN RESULTED
IN FORMATION OF SHORT RNA CHAINS; CONCN EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN 2 MMOL PRODUCED
COMPLETE INHIBITION OF THYMIDINE INCORPORATION & CELL GROWTH. ALMOST
COMPLETE REVERSAL OF THESE EFFECTS WERE SEEN WITHIN 24 HR AFTER REMOVAL OF FORMALDEHYDE; SUCH RECOVERY WAS NOT
ACCOMPANIED BY UNSCHEDULED DNA SYNTHESIS. [IARC. Monographs
on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World
Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT.
(Multivolume work).,p. V29 367 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Addition of aroclor-induced post-mitochondrial supernatant reduced the
mutagenicity of formaldehyde in the
bacterial cells. [Goldmacher VS et al; Toxicol Epidemiol Mech
(Pap Meet) 173-91 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
DNA-protein crosslinks have been formed in the nasal respiratory mucosa of
Fischer-344 rats exposed for 3 hr to selected concentrations of (3)H- and
(14)C-formaldehyde. ... In rats depleted
of glutathione and exposed to 10 ppm of (3)H-formaldehyde and (14)C-formaldehyde, the (3)H/(14)C ratio of the
fraction of the DNA that was crosslinked to proteins was significantly (39 + or
- 6%) higher than that of the inhaled gas. This suggests an isotope effect,
either on the formation of DNA-protein crosslinks by labeled formaldehyde or on the oxidation of labeled
formaldehyde catalyzed by formaldehyde or aldehyde dehydrogenase. These
results suggest that the residual (unoxidized) formaldehyde present in the nasal mucosa of
rats exposed to (3)H- and (14)C-formaldehyde may be "enriched" in 3-formaldehyde relative to (14)C-formaldehyde which can bind to DNA resulting
in an isotope ratio higher than that of the inhaled gas. The isotope effect on
the oxidation of (3)formaldehyde and
(14)C-formaldehyde suggests that
previous estimates of the amount of formaldehyde covalently bound to nasal mucosal
DNA may have been too large. [Heck HD, Casanova M; Toxicol
Appl Pharmacol 89 (1): 122-34 (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Glutathione is required for the oxidation of formaldehyde to formate catalyzed by formaldehyde dehydrogenae. The effects of
glutathione depletion on the mechanisms of labeling of macromolecules in the rat
nasal mucosa and bone marrow by (3)H-formaldehyde and (14)C-formaldehyde were investigated. Male rats were
exposed for 3 hr to atmosphere containing (3)H-formaldehyde and (14)C-formaldehyde at concentrations of 0.9, 2,4,6,
or 10 ppm, 1 day after a single 3 hr preexposure to the same concentration of
unlabeled formaldehyde. Two hours prior
to the second exposure, the animals were injected either with phorone (300
mg/kg, ip) or with corn oil. The concentration of nonprotein sulfhydryls in the
nasal respiratory mucosa of phorone-injected rats was decreased to 10% of that
of corn oil-injected rats. The metabolic incorporation of (3)H-formaldehyde and (14)C-formaldehyde into DNA, RNA and proteins in the
respirtory and olfactory mucosa and bone marrow (femur) was significantly
decreased, and DNA-protein crosslinking was significantly increased in the
respiratory mucosa of phorone injected relative to corn oil injected rats at all
formaldehyde concentrations. DNA-protein
crosslinks were not detected in the respiratory mucosa of corn oil injected rats
at 0.9 ppm. Evidence was obtained for the formation of adducts of formaldehyde with the RNA from the nasal
respiratory mucosa of phorone injected rats at concentrations above 0.9 ppm.
Covalent binding of formaldehyde to
macromolecules in the bone marrow was not detected. [Casanova
M, Heck HD; Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 89 (1): 105-21 (1987)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Fifty-five chemicals, including /formaldehyde/, were evaluated in the
Charnoffavlock developmental toxicity screen. All chemicals were administered by
gavage to pregnant ICR/SIM mice on gestation day 8-12. The mice were allowed to
deliver, & several neonatal growth & viability parameters were measured
in the offspring. ... Of the 26 cmpds reported in the literature to be
teratogenic or embryotoxic in mice following oral admin, 24 were positive in the
developmental toxicity screen. ... [Seidenberg JM, Becker RA;
Teratog Carcinog Mut 7 (1): 17-28 (1987)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... In a plate assay with Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100 in the absence
and presence of S9 mix, a weak mutagenic response was observed. Using the
pre-incubation method, formaldehyde
induced without S9 mix a 1.6-fold and with S9 mix a 2.7-fold increase of
revertant numbers over controls. [Schmid E et al; Mutagen 1
(6): 427-31 (1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Poisoning is characterized by severe abdominal pain which may be followed by
collapse and death. In less severe cases, acute nephritis with oliguria may
develop. Formaldehyde poisoning has been
recorded in cattle placed in calving sheds which had been cleaned and
disinfected shortly before with a 35% solution of this material, and after
drinking from foot-rot treatment baths. The addition of formaldehyde as a preservative to milk has
caused intoxiction in calves. The clinical signs recorded included recumbency,
abdominal pain, salivation and diarrhea. Postmortem examination revealed severe
gastrointestinal tract lesions. [Humphreys, D.J. Veterinary
Toxicology. 3rd ed. London, England: Bailliere Tindell, 1988. 192]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The use of formalin for the treatment
of foot-rot in sheep can give rise to keratinization of the interdigital skin if
the solution employed is too concentrated or its application too frequent. In
severe cases this may lead to bacterial infection of the feet and result in
serious losses. [Humphreys, D.J. Veterinary Toxicology. 3rd
ed. London, England: Bailliere Tindell, 1988. 192]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Alkaline elution was employed to study DNA damage in Chinese hamster ovary-Kl
cells treated with a series of biotic and xenobiotic aldehydes. DNA
cross-linking was measured in terms of the reduction in the effect of methyl
methanesulphonate on the kinetics of DNA elution and was observed in cells
treated with formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,
methylglyoxal and malonaldehyde. Propionaldehyde, valeraldehyde, hexanal, and
4-hydroxynonenal produced DNA single strand breaks, or lesions which were
converted to breaks in alkali. Both types of DNA damage occurred in cells
exposed to malonaldehyde. These findings support the hypothesis of a
carcinogenic effect of the aldehydic products (malonaldehyde, methylglyoxal,
propionaldehyde, hexanal, 4-hydroxynonenal) released in biomembranes during
lipid peroxidation. Acetaldehyde did not cause DNA breaks.
[Marinari UM et al; Cell Biochem Funct 2 (4): 243-8
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Two groups of 12 male Wistar rats received either 243 ppm of acetaldehyde or
5.7 ppm of formaldehyde for 8 hr a day,
5 days a week during 5 weeks. These levels represent three times the threshold
limit values for these substances in Brazilian legislation. The animals were
evaluated by pulmonary function tests before and after exposure to the
pollutants. The data obtained from these rats were compared with those of 12
controls, housed in identical conditions for the same length of time but
breathing normal air. The results showed an increase of the functional residual
capacity, residual volume, total lung capacity and respiratory frequency in the
rats exposed to acetaldehyde atmosphere. The animals exposed to formaldehyde did not present pulmonary
function alterations when compared with the controls. The damage caused by
acetaldehyde to the peripheral regions of the lung parenchyma, affecting small
airways or altering pulmonary elastic properties, is discussed.
[Saldiva PNH et al; J Appl Toxicol 5 (5): 288-92
(1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A 1 year inhalation toxicity study was performed on male albino rats using
0.1, 1.0, or 10 ppm formaldehyde. The
nasal mucosa of half the rats was damaged bilaterally by electrocoagulation; 20
to 26 hr after which the rats were subjected to the first 6 hr exposure of formaldehyde. The schedule for the exposures
was 6 hr per day, 5 days a week for up to 52 weeks. Decreases in liver
glutathione content were noted in rats with damaged noses after 13 weeks
exposure. Moderate to severe rhinitis was accompanied by keratinized or
nonkeratinized metaplastic respiratory epithelium in rats at the highest
exposure levels with or without nasal damage. Growth retardation was observed in
the animals with or without a damaged nose after 2 weeks exposure at 10 ppm
formaldehyde. At lower exposure levels
metaplastic respiratory epithelium occurred only in rats with a damage nasal
mucosa, indicating a higher susceptibility of damage mucosa for the irritating
and cytotoxic actions of formaldehyde. A
more severe basal cell hyperplasia and more severe squamous metaplasia of the
respiratory epithelium was noted in rats exposed to 1 ppm formaldehyde and subjected to
electroagulation, compared to rats with an undamaged nose and 10 ppm exposure
levels. Effects on the olfactory epithelium were exclusively found in animals
treated with 10 ppm formaldehyde effects
were more posterior in rats with damaged noses, perhaps due to an abnormal air
flow pattern in the damaged nose. No adverse effects were seen at 0.1 or 1 ppm
in rats with an intact nasal mucosa. The damaged rat nose is more susceptible
than the undamaged to the cytotoxicity of formaldehyde, and even at a concentration of
10 ppm formaldehyde has no adverse
effects on organs remote from the site of entry in rats with unchanged mucosa.
[Appelman LM et al; J Appl Toxicol 8 (2): 85-90 (1988)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The effects of benzo(a)pyrene & formaldehyde, alone & combined, on cell
growth & DNA damage were determined in primary cultures of rat tracheal
epithelial cells dissociated from rat tracheas. Cell cultures treated with 25 uM
benzo(a)pyrene for 24 hr or 200 uM formaldehyde for 90 min did not have a marked
reduction in cell growth. However, their combined treatment reduced cell growth
by 60% of control when cultures were exposed to benzo(a)pyrene followed by formaldehyde as well as the reverse order.
None of these treatments significantly decreased cell viability as judged by dye
exclusion, nor did they enhance cell terminal differentiation as measured by
cornified envelope formation. Alkaline elution analysis of DNA damage detected
both DNA-protein crosslinks & DNA single strand breaks as a result of formaldehyde treatment, whereas BAP treatment
caused only single strand breaks. While formaldehyde induced single strand breaks were
repaired within 2 hr, benzo(a)pyrene induced single strand breaks were detected
3 days after treatment. Combined treatment of cell cultures with benzo(a)pyrene
followed by formaldehyde resulted in
more single strand breaks than was obtained from either agent alone, but less
DNA-protein crosslinks than was detected from formaldehyde alone. The increased number of
single strand breaks obtained from this combined treatment may be related to the
marked enhancement of carcinogenesis observed in earlier in vivo-in vitro
studies. [Cosma GN et al; Mutat Res 201 (1): 161-8
(1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The effect of formaldehyde inhalation
on total cytochrome p450 in the lungs of Sprague-Dawley rats was assessed after
single & repeated exposure to 0, 0.5, 3, & 15 ppm formaldehyde. Whole-body exposures were
conducted exposure systems for 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk, for periods of exposure of 1
day, 4 days, 12 wk, or 24 wk. Lung cytochrome p450 were measured 18 hr after the
end of exposure at each time point. There were not detectable levels of total
lung p450 in any of the rats that received a single 6 hr exposure to all three
formaldehyde doses, while control lung
p450 levels were similar to that found for 4 day & 12 wk control rats. After
4 days of repeated exposures, however, there was a highly significantly,
reproducible, & dose-dependent incr in lung p450 levels relative to
controls, with the 0.5, 3, & 15 ppm groups demonstrating 383, 1026, &
1123% of control values, respectively. Lung p450 levels remained elevated all
formaldehyde concns through 12 & 24
wk of exposure, although the % difference between exposed & control rats
continually dropped throughout the course of long-term repeated exposures. While
formaldehyde exposed rats did have
decreased total body weight relative to controls, lung microsomal protein &
lung weight of nearly all of the formaldehyde exposed rats was not
significantly different from the controls. The initial inactivation of lung p450
after a single formaldehyde exposure is
apparently a transient phenomenon, with dose-dependent induction of the total
p450 levels in the lung as the pattern of response to repeated exposures to
inhaled formaldehyde.
[Dallas CE et al; Environ Res 49 (1): 50-9 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Male Wistar rats were exposed to 0, 10 or 20 ppm formaldehyde vapor for 4, 8, or 13 weeks (6
hr/day; 5 days/week), and were then observed for periods up to 126 weeks.
Transient growth retardation occurred in both test groups. Death rate was not
noticably affected by formaldehyde.
Despite recovery periods of at most 126 weeks, the nasal respiratory and
olfactory epithelium of many rats of the 20 ppm group exhibited non-nooplastic
histopathological changes. Similar but much less severe changes of the
respiratory epithelium were seen in a small number of rats of the 10 ppm group;
the olfactory epithelium was not visibly affected in rats of this group. Nasal
tumors considered to be induced by formaldehyde were seen only in the 20 ppm
group and mainly in rats that had been exposed for 13 weeks, the incidence being
4.5% (6/132). These tumors comprised 3 squamous cell carcinomas, 1 carcinoma in
situ and 2 polypoid adenomas, all originating from respiratory epithelium. Rat
nasal respiratory epithelium severely damaged by formaldehyde vapor ofter does not regenerate
and in some cases develops tumors. [Feron VJ et al; Cancer
Lett 39 (1): 101-11 (1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde caused nasal squamous
cell carcinomas in the rat following 2 year inhalation exposure. The incidence
of this tumor in a historical data base of 16,794 rats was nil, indicating that
it is a rare spontaneous tumor. Five different mathematical extrapolation models
were applied to the rat nasal tumor data to produce estimates at 10(-4) risk
(the size of the historical data base) of between 3.232 and 0.003 ppm formaldehyde depending on the model and choice
of maximum likelihood estimate or lower confidence limit values.
[Brown LP; Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 10 (2): 196-200
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The effects of formaldehyde on
mammalian respiratory ciliary function were studied in-vitro. Tracheal rings
from New Zealand white rabbits were incubated with 16, 33, or 66 ug/cu m formaldehyde for up to 60 minutes. Formaldehyde induced dose & time dependent
decreases in the areas of ciliary activity & ciliary best frequency. The
inhibition of ciliary function was reversible, but the times for recovery
increased with increasing formaldehyde
concn. Porcine tracheal rings were incubated with up to 66 ug/cu m formaldehyde for 60 min followed by up to 65
min recovery. The number of extractable active cilia (ciliary axonemes) was
determined. Formaldehyde decreased the
number of extractable ciliary axonemes & associated ATPase activity in a
dose & time dependent manner. The inhibitory effects were reversible.
[Hastie AT et al; Toxicol & Appl Toxicol 102 (2): 282-91
(1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The induction of ornithine-decarboxylase activity and DNA synthesis was
studied in the glandular stomach mucosa of rats afer gastric intubation of formaldehyde. Male Fischer rats were given
doses of formaldehyde ranging from 11 to
110 mg/kg body weight by gastric intubation. The maximum increase in
ornithine-decarboxylase activity was a 100 fold increase noted after 16 hours.
The maximum increase in DNA synthesis was a 49 fold increase after 16 hours in
the pyloric mucosa of the stomach. Even doses lower than 75 mg/kg, formaldehyde induced ornithine-decarboxylase
activity and DNA synthesis in the pyloric mucosa. All the glandular stomach
carcinogens and tumor promoters examined have been found to induce
ornithine-decarboxylase activity and stimulate DNA synthesis in the glandular
stomach mucosa. Inductions of ornithine-decarboxylase activity and DNA synthesis
are useful markers of possible tumor promoting activity in the glandular stomach
mucosa. [Furihata C et al; Japanese J of Cancer Res 79 (8):
917-20 (1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The relative toxicities of formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde to the rat
nasal epithelium were determined following intra-nasal instillation of aqueous
solutions of these compounds into one nostril of male Fischer 344 (F-344) rats.
Lesions identical in appearance to those resulting from acute inhalation
exposure to formaldehyde were induced by
both compounds in a concentration-dependent manner. While sterile saline and 10
mM glutaraldehyde induced no significant epithelial changes, 20 and 40 mM
glutaraldehyde induced extensive lesions in the treated side of the nose.
Aldehyde induced lesions included inflammation, epithelial hypertrophy, and
squamous metaplasia in association with marked increases (2-8-fold) in labeling
index for both compounds. Formaldehyde
induced similar lesions but required concentrations of 200 mM or more to elicit
a toxic response. Thus, glutaraldehyde is approximately an order of magnitude
more toxic to the nasal epithelium than formaldehyde. [St Clair M
BG et al; Toxicol Pathol 18 (3): 353-61 (1990)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats of different ages at the start of the
experiments (12 day embryos, and 7 and 25 weeks old) were administered formaldehyde in drinking water at different
doses (2,500 or 1,500, 1,000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 0 ppm). An increased incidence
of leukemias and of gastro-intestinal tumors was observed in formaldehyde treated rats. Gastro-intestinal
tumors are exceptionally rare in the rats of the colony used.
[Soffritti M et al; Toxicol Ind Health 5 (5): 699-730
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The effects of formaldehyde on the
respiratory tract were studied in monkeys. Male rhesus monkeys were exposed to 6
ppm formaldehyde 6 hours/day, 5
days/week for 1 or 6 weeks. Histopathological changes induced by formaldehyde included mild degeneration and
early squamous metaplasia in the transitional and respiratory epithelium of the
nasal passages and the respiratory epithelium of the trachea and bronchi. There
was little difference in the severity of the nasal lesions between animals
exposed for 1 or 6 weeks; however, the percentage of nasal mucosal epithelial
area with lesions was significantly larger in monkeys exposed for 6 weeks. Only
minimal histopathological changes occurred in the lower airways. No treatment
related effects were seen in the maxillary sinuses or nonrespiratory ortans.
Thymidine labeling indices were significantly increased in the respiratory
epithelium of the nasal passages at both 1 and 6 weeks. The areas of greatest
proliferation corresponded to the areas of the lesions. Labeling indices in the
trachea and carina were significantly elevated after 1 week of exposure. They
were nonsignificantly elevated in the transitional and olfactory epithelium of
the nasasl passages. Formaldehyde
induced nasal lesions are more widespread in the monkey than in the rat, and
monkeys are more sensitive to the acute and subacute effects of formaldehyde. [Monticello
TM et al; Am J Path 134 (3): 515-27 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A 28 month inhalation study was carried out in male SPF reared albino Wistar
rats to determine the significance of electrocoagulation damage for the
induction of nasal tumors by formaldehyde vapor. Male rats with severely
damaged or undamaged noses were exposed 6 hours/day, 5 days/week for 28 months
to formaldehyde at concentrations of
0.0, 0.1, 1.0, and 10 ppm. Degenerative, inflammatory and hyperplastic changes
were noted in the nasal respiratory and olfactory mucosa in rats with intact
noses at the highest dose levels. The incidence of formaldehyde induced rhinitis, hyperplasia and
metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium, and degeneration and hyperplasia and
metaplasia of the olfactory epithelium all occurred in increased numbers in rats
exposed to formaldehyde with damage
nasal passages. The incidence of nasal tumors in animals with damage nasal
mucosa and treated with 10 ppm formaldehyde for 28 months was 29% (17 of 58
rats), while in the group of rats with an intact nasal mucosa exposed to 10 ppm
formaldehyde for 28 months, only 1 of 26
(4%) developed a nasal tumor. Increased tumor incidences were not oberved in
rats with damaged nasal mucosa exposed to 0.1 or 1.0 ppm formaldehyde for 28 months or to 0.1, 1.0, or
10 ppm formaldehyde for 3 months. The
condition of the nasal mucosa is an important factor in the development of nasal
tumors among rats exposed to formaldehyde. [Woutersen RA
et al; J Appl Toxicol 9 (1): 39-46 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Male and female Wistar rats were given formaldehyde solution in their drinking water
at concentrations of 0.50, 0.10, 0.02 and 0% for 24 months. Significant
decreases in body weight and food and water intake were observed in the 0.50%
group of both sexes and all rats in this group died by 24 months. Various
non-neoplastic lesions were observed in rats, mostly in the 0.50% group. In this
group, erosions and/or ulcers were evident in both the forestomach and glandular
stomach. In the forestomach, squamous cell hyperplasia with or without
hyperkeratosis and downward growth of basal cells were observed. Glandular
hyperplasia of the fundic mucosa was noted along the limiting ridge. A few of
such changes of the upper GI tract were seen in the 0.10% group. No
toxicological abnormalities were found in 0.02% group of both sexes. There were
no significant differences in the incidences of any tumors among groups of both
sexes. Based on these findings, the no observable effect level of formaldehyde was 0.02% in the drinking water
(10 mg/kg body wt/day). [Tobe M et al; Toxicol 56 (1): 79-86
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The effects of intermittent and continuous inhalation exposure to formaldehyde were studied in rats. Male Wistar
rats were exposed to 0, 1, or 2 ppm formaldehyde continuously for 8 hours a day, 5
days a week for 13 weeks. Other rats were exposed to 0, 2, or 4 ppm formaldehyde intermittently, for eight 30
minute exposures separated by 30 mintue periods of nonexposure, 5 days a week
for 13 weeks. After 13 weeks, the nasal cavity tissues were examined for
histopathological changes. Formaldehyde
did not significantly affect body weight again. A slight nonsignificant increase
in cell turnover was seen after 3 days in rats exposed intermittently to 2 ppm
or continuously to 1 ppm formaldehyde.
This effect was not seen after 13 weeks. Treatment related histopathological
changes were seen only in nasal tissues from rats exposed intermittently to 4
ppm formaldehyde. These consisted of
disarrangement, hyperplasia, and squamous metaplasia with or without
keratinization of the respiratory epithelium of the septum and nasoturbinates.
These changes were not seen in rats exposed continuously to 2 ppm formaldehyde, which produced the same total
daily dose as the intermittent 4 ppm exposure group. Under conditions of formaldehyde, exposure concentration, not
total dose, determines the severity of the cytotoxic effects.
[Wilmer JWGM et al; Toxicol Letters 47 (3): 287-93
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 0, 5, 10, 20 or 40 ppm formaldehyde for 6 hr/day from day 6 to 20 of
gestation. On day 21 of gestation, no effect on embryonic or fetal lethality,
nor significant alterations in the external, visceral or skeletal appearance of
the fetuses were noted in any of the exposed groups. Significant
concentrations-related reduction of fetal body weight occurred at 20 & 40
ppm, & at 40 ppm fetal body weights were 20% < those of the controls.
Maternal toxicity, indicated by significant reduction in body weight &
absolute weight gain, was observed at 40 ppm. Formaldehyde is slightly fetotoxic at 20 ppm.
Neither embryolethal nor teratogenic effects were observed following inhalation
exposure at levels up to 40 ppm. [Saillerfait AM et al; Food
Chem Toxicol 27 (8): 545-8 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
An acute exposure study /was conducted/ using 4 groups of 12 Wistar male rats
each. One of the 4 groups was used as a control; the other 3 were exposed for 6
hr at 10 ppm, 20 ppm, or 30 ppm. In addn to observing behavioral & other
responses during the test period, biochemical & hematologic tests were
performed on the test animals. Responses of the 10 ppm exposed group did not
differ from those of the controls. In the 20 ppm exposed group, a sniffing
motion was observed 1 min after the start of exposure, followed by face-washing
movements 10 min later. The face-washing movements decreased with increased
exposure time. It was observed at the end of the 6 hr exposure that the hair
around the penile area had become yellowed. The movements of the 30 ppm exposed
group were similar to those observed for the animals exposed at 20 ppm
throughout the exposure period except that hair yellowing was seen 2 hr after
the start of exposure. Observations of the 20 ppm & 30 ppm exposed groups
also included irritation of the nasal mucosal membrane & trachea, a decr in
leukocytes & plasma alkaline phosphatase, & an incr in lung alkaline
phosphatase activity. The 10 ppm & 30 ppm groups had a decr in the mean
corpuscualr volume & mean corpuscular hemoglobin. The 30 ppm exposed group
also had a decr in white blood cells. [American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit
Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II, III. Cincinnati,
OH: ACGIH, 1991. 665]**PEER REVIEWED**
84 articles relating to adverse health effects in animals & humans from
subchronic exposures to formaldehyde
/were reviewed/ & conclude that animal data revealed a qualitative
relationship between formaldehyde
absorption & hepatotoxicity. These data indicate that exposure to formaldehyde at 3 ppm or less for periods up
to 6 months causes adverse effects upon the liver; higher exposure concns for
shorter time periods produce similar effects upon the liver. The reviewed data
appear to establish a relationship between exposure to formaldehyde & hepatic degeneration,
including decreases in the concn of DNA; mottled, discolored appearance;
significant incr in weight; nuclear polymorphism; a profusion of binuclear cells
around the triads; focal hyperplasia; & dilatation of hepatic veins with
some degeneration of liver cells in the center of the lobules. ... Additional
research is required in order to define formaldehyde as a potential human hepatotoxin
in formaldehyde exposed populations.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II, III. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1991. 666]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A long-term formaldehyde animal
inhalation bioassay in which groups of about 120 males & 120 female Fischer
344 strain rats & B6C3F1 mice were exposed by inhalation at 0, 2.0, 5.6, or
14.3 ppm of formaldehyde gas for 6
hr/day, 5 days/wk for 24 months. The exposure period was followed by up to 6
months of nonexposure. Squamous cell carcinomas were observed in the nasal
cavities of 103 rats (52 females & 51 males) & in 2 male mice; all had
been exposed at 14.3 ppm of formaldehyde. One male & one female rat
exposed at 5.6 ppm of formaldehyde were
also found to have squamous cell carcinomas in their nasal cavities. The two
squamous cell carcinomas found in mice exposed at 14.3 ppm formaldehyde were not statistically
significant in comparison with the incidence in control mice. However, since
this type of nasal lesion is rare in mice, these data can be considered to have
biological importance. Benign tumors, such as polypid adenomas, were also seen
in male rats in /another/ study at all dose levels & in female rats exposed
at 2 ppm formaldehyde. The benign tumor
incidence was not linear in this study; benign tumor incidence was highest at
the 2 ppm exposure & decreased at higher doses. Since benign nasal tumors
are rarely found in rats, the formation in the formaldehyde exposed animals may be attributed
to the formaldehyde inhalation.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II, III. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1991. 667]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde induces gene mutation in
bacteria, fungi, yeast, & Drosophila larvae as well as in cultured rodent
and human cells. In part, these mutations appear to be the consequence of DNA
damage. A second mechanism by which formaldehyde may damage the genome is
inhibition of DNA repair. [Rom, W.N. (ed.). Environmental and
Occupational Medicine. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1992.
868]**PEER REVIEWED**
10 rats (strain, age and sex unspecified) were injected subcutaneously once a
week for 15 months with 1 ml of a 0.4% aqueous solution of formaldehyde and then observed for life.
Spindle-cell sarcomas were found in three rats; two in the skin at the injection
site and one in the peritoneal cavity. [IARC. Monographs on
the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World
Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT.
(Multivolume work).,p. V62 292 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In a study to evaluate the effects of formaldehyde on gastric carcinogenesis induced
by oral administration of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, two groups of 10
male Wistar rats, seven weeks of age, received tap water for the first eight
weeks of the study. During weeks 8-40, one group then received pure water and
the other group received 0.5% formaldehyde in the drinking water. Animals
still alive at 40 weeks were killed, rats surviving beyond 30 weeks being
considered as effective animals for the study. Necropsy was performed on most
animals that died and all animals that were killed, and the stomach and other
abdominal organs were examined grossly and histologically. Eight of 10 animals
that had received formaldehyde in
drinking water and none of the controls developed forestomach papillomas (p<
0.01, Fisher's exact test). [IARC. Monographs on the
Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health
Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT.
(Multivolume work).,p. V62 291 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Two groups of 16 male and 16 female Oslo hairless mice (age unspecified)
received topical applications of 200 ul of 1 or 10% formaldehyde in water on the skin of the back
twice a week for 60 weeks. All of the animals treated with 10% formaldehyde were necropsied and the brain,
lungs, nasal cavities and all tumors of the skin and other organs were examined
histologically. Virtually no changes were found in the mice treated with 1%
formaldehyde. The higher dose induced
slight epidermal hyperplasia and a few skin ulcers. There were no benign or
malignant skin tumors or tumors in other organs in either group.
[IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for
Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V62 292 (1995)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Repeated exposure to formaldehyde
vapors at 40 ppm, 6 hr/day, 5 day/wk for up to 13 wk produced 80% mortality in
B6C3F1 mice, whereas mice exposed with the same protocol to 20 ppm showed no
mortalities within the exposure period ... . Deaths occurred predominately in
the fifth and sixth wk of exposure and were assoc with ataxia, severe body
weight depression, and inflammation and metaplasia in the nasal cavity, larynx,
trachea, and lungs. Deaths were attributed to occlusive tracheal lesions and/or
prominent seropurulent rhinitis ... . In other intermediate duration inhalation
bioassays, no exposure-related deaths or early mortalities were found in Wistar
rats exposed to up to 20 ppm, 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for 13 wk ... in F344 rats,
Cynomolgus monkeys, or Golden Syrian hamsters exposed up to 2.95 ppm, 22 hr/day,
7 days/wk for 26 wk ... or in Wistar rats exposed to up to 20 ppm, 6 hr/day, 5
days/wk for 4, 8, or 13 wk and subsequently observed for 117 wk without exposure
... . [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p.
11 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In chronic inhalation bioassays, incr mortality ... was found in
Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to 14.2 ppm formaldehyde, 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for up to
588 days ... in F344 rats exposed to 5.6 or 14.3 ppm (but not 2 ppm), 6 hr/day,
5 days/wk for up to 24 mo ... in F344 rats exposed to 15 ppm (but not to 0.7, 2,
6, or 10 ppm) 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for 24 mo ... and in F344 rats exposed to 15
ppm (but not to 0.3 or 2 ppm), 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for up to 28 mo ... . In
general, observations of incr mortality in the rat bioassays occurred after
about one yr of exposure and were assoc with the development of nasal squamous
cell carcinomas. Golden Syrian hamster exposed to 10 ppm formaldehyde, 5 hr/day, 5 days/wk for life
showed a small, but statistically significant, incr in mortality compared with
controls, but no incr incidence of nasal tumors and only a minimal (5% versus
zero in controls) incr incidence of hyperplasia or metaplasia in the nasal
epithelium ... . No exposure-related incr motality was found in B6C3F1 mice
exposed to up to 14.3 ppm for 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for 24 mo ... .
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 12
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Studies in animals confirm that the upper respiratory tract is a critical
target for inhaled formaldehyde and
describe exposure-response relationships for upper respiratory tract irritation
and epithelial damage in several species. Acute inhalation animal studies show
that inhaled formaldehyde, at
appropriate exposure concn, damages epithelial tissue in specific regions of the
upper respiratory tract in rats, mice, and monkeys ... that formaldehyde is a more potent sensory irritant
in mice ... than in rats ... that lung damage from inhaled formaldehyde occurs at higher concn than those
only affecting the upper respiratory tract ... that mice are less susceptible to
formaldehyde-induced upper respiratory
tract epithelial damage than rats ... that rats and monkeys may be equally
susceptible to epithelial damage ... but display similar epithelial lesions in
different regions of the upper respiratory tract ... and that formaldehyde induces bronchoconstriction and
airway hyperreactivity in guinea pigs ... . [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 54 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Results from intermediate-duration inhalation studies with rats ... Rhesus
monkeys .. Cynomolgus monkeys ... mice ... and hamsters ... indicate that the
nasal epithelium is the most sensitive target of inhaled formaldehyde. The studies support the
hypothesis that mice and hamsters are less sensitive than rats and monkeys to
formaldehyde-induced nasal damage ...
show that formaldehyde-induced damage to
the upper respiratory tract epithelium (hyperplasia and squamous cell
metaplasia) has a wider regional distribution in Rhesus monkeys than in rats ...
show that site-specific nasal lesions in both monkeys and rats corresponded to
regions with high rates of cellular proliferation ... indicate that damage to
the respiratory epithelium is more concn-dependent than duration-dependent ...
and show that concn of DNA-protein cross links are correlated with regional
sites of formaldehyde-induced epithelial
damage in the nose of rats ... . [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological
Profile for Formaldehyde p. 57 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Chronic-duration exposures in inhaled formaldehyde have also been studied in rats,
mice, and hamsters. In rats exposed to concn < or = 15 ppm, formaldehyde-induced effects were restricted
to nonneoplastic and neoplastic lesions found primarily in anterior regions of
the nasal epithelium, posterior to the vestibule ... . Nonneoplastic damage to
rat nasal epithelium occurred at concn as low as 2 ppm, 6 hr/day, 5 days, wk ...
whereas significantly incr incidences of neoplastic lesions (squamous cell
carcinomas, squamous cell papillomas or polyploid adenomas) were found in rats
generally at concn greater than 6 ppm ... . Nonneoplastic damage to upper
respiratory tract epithelium has also been observed in mice exposed to > or =
5.6 ppm, 6 hr/day, 5 days/wk for 2 yr ... and in hamsters exposed to 10 ppm, 5
hr/day, 5 days/wk for life ... . Nasal tumors similar to those found in mice
exposed to 14.3 ppm for 2 hr ... but were not found in formaldehyde-exposed hamsters ... .
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 62
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Studies in laboratory animals have also demonstrated that formaldehyde can be genotoxic in some cells
after inhalation exposure. ... exposed male Sprague-Dawley rats to formaldehyde concn of 0, 0.5, 3, and 15 ppm,
by inhalation for 6 hr/day for 5 days. The rats were sacrificed, and their
pulmonary macrophages and bone marrow cells were harvested and analyzed ... .
... An incr in chromosomal abnormalities in pulmonary macrophages, predominantly
chromatid breaks, was observed in the 15 ppm group (7.5 versus 3.4% for
controls) after 5 days of exposure. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 87 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... admin 20, 40 or 90 mg/kg/day formaldehyde 5 days/wk for 4 wk to male Wistar
rats by gavage. Incr absolute and relative lymph node weights were observed
beginning at 40 mg/kg/day. Antibody production was assayed by measurement of
total blood IgG and IgM, a hemagglutination assay, a plaque-forming cell assay,
and by measurement of IgM production in spleen cells. Only the hemagglutination
assay showed a significant effect; the combined IgG and IgM titers were
significantly lower than controls at 20 mg/kg/day and above, although individual
IgM and IgG titers were only significantly different from controls at 40 and 80
mg/kg/day. [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for
Formaldehyde p. 145 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Albino guinea pigs (Hartley strain) were treated with 0.1 ml of various
dilutions of formalin (1, 3, and 10%
formalin; approximately equivalent to
0.4, 1.2, and 4% formaldehyde) to
demarcated test sites, and the formalin
soln was gently rubbed into the skin with a cotton-tipped applicator ... . An
unexposed control site and a vehicle control were used in each series. The sites
were left unoccluded and the treatments were repeated once daily immediately
after skin-fold measurements. Each site was examined prior to skin-fold
measurements for the presence of erythema, edema, fissuring, and scaling. From a
mean of 10 sites, erythema appeared on day 2 (4%), day 5 (1.2%), and day 6
(0.4%). Increased skin-fold thickness was statistically significant on day 3
(4%), day 7 (1.2%), and day 9 (0.04%) after daily treatment with various concn
of formaldehyde.
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 160
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Increased cell replication occurs as a result of the cytotoxic effects of
formaldehyde on the nasal mucosa.
Morphological changes (acute degeneration, swelling, formation of "dense
bodies", & vacuoles in epithelial cells) were described in the respiratory
epithelium of rats after a single 6 hr exposure to 18 mg formaldehyde/cu m. When such exposure was
repeated 3-5 times, ulceration was observed in the respiratory epithelium in
most experimental animals. After a 9-day exposure, reparative hyperplasia &
metaplasia were found. At 7.2 mg/cu m, hyperplasia & slight degenerative
changes were still detected. In contrast, morphological changes could not be
proved at 0.6 & 2.5 mg formaldehyde/cu m. [WHO;
Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde p.134 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Non-Human Toxicity Values:
LD50 Rat oral 800 mg/kg [ITII. Toxic and Hazardous
Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International Technical
Information Institute, 1988. 249]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Rat sc 420 mg/kg [ITII. Toxic and Hazardous
Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International Technical
Information Institute, 1988. 249]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Mouse sc 300 mg/kg [ITII. Toxic and Hazardous
Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International Technical
Information Institute, 1988. 249]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Guinea pig oral 260 mg/kg [ITII. Toxic and Hazardous
Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International Technical
Information Institute, 1988. 249]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Rabbit percutaneous 270 mg/kg /Formalin/ [Tomlin, C.D.S.
(ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British
Crop Protection Council, 1994. 525]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rat inhalation 0.82 mg/l (1/2 hour) [Tomlin, C.D.S.
(ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British
Crop Protection Council, 1994. 525]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rat inhalation 0.48 mg/l (4 hr) [Tomlin, C.D.S.
(ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British
Crop Protection Council, 1994. 525]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Mouse inhalation 0.414 mg/l (4 hr) [Tomlin, C.D.S.
(ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British
Crop Protection Council, 1994. 525]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Rat oral 100 mg/kg [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous
Properties of Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Rat iv 87 mg/kg [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous
Properties of Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
LD50 Mouse oral 42 mg/kg [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous
Properties of Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Mouse inhalation 400 mg/cu m/2 hr [Lewis, R.J. Sax's
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Ecotoxicity Values:
LC50 Striped bass larvae 10 mg/l/48-96 hr; static bioassay.
[Environmental Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills:
Formaldehyde p.67 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Median lethal dose Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 50 mg/l/48 hr. /Conditions
of bioassay not specified/ [Environment Canada; Tech Info for
Problem Spills: Formaldehyde p.68 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Flounder 100-300 mg/l/48 hr (aerated salt water) /Conditions of bioassay
not specified/ [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem
Spills: Formaldehyde p.70 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) (green egg) 565 mg/l/96 hr static
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) (eyed egg) 198 mg/l/96 hr static
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) (sac larvae) 89.5 mg/l/96 hr static
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) fingerlings 61.9 mg/l/96 hr static
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) 440 mg/l/96 hr static bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) 214 mg/l/24 hr static bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) 118 ul/l/96 hr flow-through bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 173 ul/l/96 hr flow-through bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) 100 ul/l/96 hr flow-through bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Black bullhead (Ameiurus melas or Ictalurus melas) 62.1 ul/l/96 hr
flow-through bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of
Environmental Data of Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) 65.8 ul/l/96 hr flow-through
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) 173 ul/l/96 hr flow-through bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) 100 ul/l/96 hr flow-through bioassay
[Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983. 680]**PEER
REVIEWED**
LC50 Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) 136 ul/l/96 hr flow-through
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) 143 ul/l/96 hr flow-through
bioassay [Verschueren, K. Handbook of Environmental Data of
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983.
680]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) 24.1 mg/l/96 hr (confidence limit
22.6 - 25.7 mg/l), flow-through bioassay with measured concentrations, 21.7 deg
C, dissolved oxygen 7.4 mg/l, hardness 50.8 mg/l calcium carbonate, alkalinity
37.0 mg/l calcium carbonate, and pH 6.8. [Geiger D.L., D.J.
Call, L.T. Brooke. (eds.). Acute Toxicities of Organic Chemicals to Fathead
Minnows (Pimephales- Promelas). Vol. V. Superior WI:University of
Wisconsin-Superior, 1990. 31]**PEER REVIEWED**
TSCA Test Submissions:
Chronic toxicity and oncogenicity were evaluated in male and female Fischer
344 rats (120/sex/dose level, 240/sex controls) exposed to formaldehyde by inhalation at 0, 2, 6 or 15
ppm for 6 hrs/day, 5 days/week, for 24 months. A total of 95 confirmed cases of
nasal squamous cell carcinoma were observed in rats exposed to the highest dose
level, 3 cases were observed in rats exposed to 6 ppm, and no cases were
observed at the 2 ppm dose level or in controls. Further results from this study
were not reported in this progress report. [Chemical Industry
Institute of Toxicology; Progress Report on CIIT Formaldehyde Studies. (1980),
EPA Old Document No. 44004, Fiche No. OTS0507060 ]
**UNREVIEWED**
Chronic toxicity and oncogenicity were evaluated in male and female B6C3F1
mice (120/sex/dose level, 240/sex controls) exposed to formaldehyde by inhalation at 0, 2, 6 or 15
ppm for 6 hrs/day, 5 days/week, for 24 months. A total of 2 confirmed cases of
nasal squamous cell carcinoma were observed in mice exposed to the highest dose
level and no cases were observed at the 2 or 6 ppm dose levels or in controls.
Further results from this study were not reported in this progress
report. [Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology; Progress
Report on CIIT Formaldehyde Studies. (1980), EPA Old Document No. 44004, Fiche
No. OTS0507060 ] **UNREVIEWED**
The effects of acute oral exposure to formaldehyde by gavage in male Wistar rats (20
in control group (water), 5/treated group, number of treated groups not
reported) were determined. Formaldehyde
(100 or 200 mg/kg) was administered in a single dose and the rats were
necropsied on the 11th day following dosing. There were differences between
treated and control animals at the highest does level in the following: increase
in sperm head count, and a highly significant increase in the percentage of
abnormal sperm heads, including straight heads (i.e. no hook), excessive
curvature of heads, folded, coiled, thin or amorphous heads. There were no
significant differences between treated and control animals in the following:
clinical observations, histopathology of the testes, and testes
weights. [Shell Oil Co.; The Effects of Acute Exposure of
Dimethoxyethyl Phthalate, Glycerol Alpha-monochlorohydrin, Epichlorohydrin,
Formaldehyde and Methylmethanesulfonate Upon Testicular Sperm in the Rat.
(1982), EPA Document No. 878210077, Fiche No. OTS206200 ]
**UNREVIEWED**
Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics:
Metabolism/Metabolites:
RAPID OXIDN OF FORMALDEHYDE INTO
FORMATE FOLLOWED BY FURTHER OXIDN TO CARBON DIOXIDE TAKES PLACE PRINCIPALLY IN
ERYTHROCYTES & LIVER. [The Chemical Society. Foreign
Compound Metabolism in Mammals Volume 3. London: The Chemical Society, 1975.
339]**PEER REVIEWED**
WHEN FEMALE RATS WERE ADMIN (14)C-FORMALDEHYDE IP AT DOSE LEVEL OF 70 MG/KG, 82%
OF DOSE WAS EXPIRED AS (14)CARBON DIOXIDE & 13-14% WAS EXCRETED VIA KIDNEYS
IN FORM OF METHIONINE, SERINE, & FORMALDEHYDE-CYSTEINE ADDUCT.
[The Chemical Society. Foreign Compound Metabolism in Mammals
Volume 3. London: The Chemical Society, 1975. 340]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Rats injected ip with 0.26 mg/kg (14)C-labeled formaldehyde ... excreted approx 22% of this
dose in the urine over 5 days. Formic acid & a thiazolidine-4-carboxylic
acid derivative were identified in urine as formaldehyde metabolites.
[Hemminki K; Chem-Biol Interact 48 (2): 243-8 (1984)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
SHORTLY AFTER IV INJECTION OF 35 MG/KG FORMALDEHYDE, INTO DOGS, THERE WAS NO INCR IN
PLASMA FORMALDEHYDE CONCN, BUT BIG INCR
IN FORMIC ACID CONCN. ... THE RATE OF FORMALDEHYDE OXIDN IS COMPARABLE IN SEVERAL
SPECIES OF MAMMALS ... [The Chemical Society. Foreign
Compound Metabolism in Mammals Volume 3. London: The Chemical Society, 1975.
339]**PEER REVIEWED**
A novel modification for urinary formic acid analysis was developed in order
to gain experience in the biological monitoring of farmers exposed to the acid
vapors in silage making. It appeared that the farmers excreted varying amounts
of acid before the actual silage making period, but all showed increased
excretion rates up to 15 hr after the exposures. The data indicated that formic
acid may have a long biological half-life possibly causing an accumulation of
the acid in the body. This might constitute unappreciated toxicological hazard,
as the acid is an inhibitor of oxygen metabolism. [Liesivuori
J; Ann Occup Hyg 30 (3): 329-34 (1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The effect of deuterium substitution on the metab of formaldehyde & formate to carbon dioxide
in vivo was examined. 4 groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats were injected ip with
(14)C labeled formaldehyde, formaldehyde-d2, sodium formate, or sodium
formate-d at doses of 0.67 mmol/kg. Similar rates of labeled carbon dioxide
exhalation were observed for the 4 groups of animals, the cumulative excretion
of (14)Carbon dioxide in breath reaching 68-71% of the theoretical value 12 hr
after injection in all cases. Plots of amount remaining to be excreted showed
that the metab was biexponential, with half-lives of approx 0.4 & 3 hr for
the two phases for each of the 4 compounds. ... [Keefer LK et
al; Drug Metals Dispos 15 (3): 300-4 (1987)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Homogenates of respiratory & olfactory tissue from the rat nasal cavity
were examined for their capacity to catalyze the NAD(+)-dependant oxidation of
formaldehyde (in the presence &
absence of glutathione) & of acetaldehyde. Both aldehydes were oxidized
efficiently by nasal mucosal homogenates, & formaldehyde dehydrogenase & aldehyde
dehydrogenase were tentatively identified in both tissue samples. At least 2
isoenzymes of aldehyde dehydrogenase differing either with respect to their
apparent Km & max values with acetaldehyde as substrate, were found in the
nasal mucosa, one of which may catalyze the oxidation of both formaldehyde & acetaldehyde. ... Repeated
exposures of rats to formaldehyde (15
ppm, 6 hr/day, 10 days) or to acetaldehyde (1500 ppm, 6 hr/day, 5 days) did not
substantially affect the specific activities of formaldehyde dehydrogenase & aldehyde
dehydrogenase in nasal mucosal homogenates. Glutathione is a cofactor for formaldehyde dehydrogenase; the concn of
nonprotein sulfhydryls in respiratory mucosal homogenates was approx 2.8 uM/g
& was not changed significantly by repeated exposures to formaldehyde (15 ppm, 6 hr/day, 9 days). These
data indicate that the rat nasal mucosa, which is the major target site for both
aldehydes in inhalation toxicity studies, can metabolize both formaldehyde & acetaldehyde, & that
the specific activities of formaldehyde
& aldehyde dehydrogenase in homogenates of the nasal mucosa are essentially
unchanged following repeated exposures to toxic concns of either cmpnd.
[Casanova-Schmitz M et al; Biochem Pharmacol 33 (7): 1137-42
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The movement of blood formaldehyde in
rabbits that were intoxicated with methanol has been investigated. When methanol
alone was admin to rabbits orally, formaldehyde could not be detected in the
blood. Further, in an experiment on the metab of methanol in vitro, formaldehyde was not detected in specimen
samples but formate was. In contrast, when methanol was orally admin to rabbits
that had been pretreated with diethyldithiocarbamate, an aldehyde dehydrogenase
inhibitor, 17 to 33 microM of formaldehyde were detected in the blood 4 hr
later. However, formaldehyde was not
detected in the blood when methanol was orally admin to rabbits that had been
pretreated with pyrazole, & alcohol dehydrogenase, inhibitor. After rabbits
were given an iv admin of formaldehyde,
& on the addition of formaldehyde to
a rabbit liver homogenate & blood, the formaldehyde in both instances was metabolized
rapidly. Formaldehyde that was not
metabolized within 10-15 min, however, bound to the tissue proteins. Formaldehyde was seen to be rapidly
metabolized to formate without accumulating in the blood or binding to the
tissue proteins. [Matsumoto K et al; Nippon Hoigaku Zasshi 44
(3): 205-11 (1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is a normal metabolite
of the body involved in methylation reactions through the tetrafolate mechanism;
normal blood levels of formaldehyde in
humans & animals are approx 2.5 ppm (2.5 mg/l). Formaldehyde is rapidly metabolized with a
half-life in the blood of approx 1.5 min. This half-life is based primarily on
primate data although available human data are consistent with this observation
of a very short half-life. Data from other species suggest that the half-life of
formaldehyde is fairly similar in many
species. Formaldehyde's normal blood
levels & short half-life, as well as the assumption that the levels of water
soluble formaldehyde in the blood are in
equilibrium with the body fluids pool, lead to a calculation that an adult human
body normally produces & metabolizes (detoxify or utilizes) over 50,000 ug
of endogenous formaldehyde/day. Formaldehyde is either converted to carbon
dioxide by the formate pathway & then exhaled or incorporated into the one
carbon pool. Radioactivity following exposure to 14C-formaldehyde is found throughout the body
& supports the concept of rapid incorporation & metab.
[Sullivan, J.B. Jr., G.R. Krieger (eds.). Hazardous Materials
Toxicology-Clinical Principles of Environmental Health. Baltimore, MD: Williams
and Wilkins, 1992. 974]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde may be formed
endogenously after contact with xenobiotics; 18 chemicals have been shown to be
metabolized by the nasal microsomes of rats to produce formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is a normal metabolite in
mammalian systems. It is rapidly metabolized to formate which is partially
incorporated via normal metabolic pathways into the one-carbon pool of the body
or further oxidized to carbon dioxide. Formaldehyde also reacts with proteins &
nucleic acids; it reacts with single-strand DNA, but not with double-strand DNA.
This link is reversible. Only formaldehyde cross-links of DNA & protein
are stable. ... The oxidation of absorbed formaldehyde to formic acid is catalyzed by
several enzymes. The most important enzyme is the NAD-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase, which requires
reduced glutathione (GSH) as a cofactor. Thus, exogenous formaldehyde becomes a source of the so-called
one-carbon pool in intermediary metab. ... There are at least 7 enzymes that
catalyze the oxidation of formaldehyde
in animal tissues, namely aldehyde dehydrogenase, xanthinoxidase, catalase,
peroxidase, glycerinaldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidase, &
a specific DPN-dependent formaldehyde
dehydrogenase. [WHO; Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde
p.81 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Incubation of formaldehyde with human
nasal mucus in vitro resulted in the reversible formation of protein adducts,
primarily with albumin, suggesting that a portion of the inhaled formaldehyde is retained in the mucous
blanket. No adducts were found in high relative-molecular-mass glycoproteins.
Absorbed formaldehyde may react with
nucleophiles (e.g., amino and sulfhydryl groups) at or near the absorption site,
or it can be oxidized to formate and exhaled as carbon dioxide or incorporated
into biological macromolecules via tetrahydrofolate-dependent one-carbon
biosynthetic pathways. [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of
the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p.
V62 299 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Several of the urinary excretion products of formaldehyde in rats have been identified
after intraperitoneal administration of (14)C-formaldehyde. After injecting Wistar rats with
0.26 mg/kg body weight, ... formate and a sulfur-containing metabolite (thought
to be a derivative of thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid) and products presumed to
result from one-carbon metabolism /were detected/. Thiazolidine-4-carboxylate,
which is formed via the nonenzymatic condensation of formaldehyde with cysteine, was not detected
in urine. [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p.
V62 299 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The toxicokinetics of formaldehyde
after inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure has been reported in several species
by many investigators. The toxicokinetics in all of the animals studied is
similar across species lines. Formaldehyde is an essential metabolic
intermediate in all cells. It is produced during the normal metabolism of
serine, glycine, methionine, and choline and also by the demethylation of N-,
S-, and O-methyl compounds. After oxidation of formaldehyde to formate, the carbon atom is
further oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2) or incorporated into purines,
thymidine, and amino acids via tetra-hydrofolate-dependent one-carbon
biosynthetic pathways. Exogenous formaldehyde appears to be readily absorbed
from the respiratory and GI tracts, but poorly absorbed following dermal
application. Formaldehyde is metabolized
to formate by the enzyme formaldehyde
dehydrogenase; this appears to take place at the initial site of contact. Being
normal components of intermediary metabolism, neither formaldehyde nor formate are stored to any
significant extent in any tissue of the body. Formate is either excreted in the
urine (primarily as formic acid), incorporated into other cellular molecules, or
oxidized to carbon dioxide and exhaled. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 166 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is rapidly metabolized
and storage is not a factor in its toxicity. The metabolism of formaldehyde to formate ... takes place in all
of the tissues of the body as a consequence of endogenous formation of formaldehyde, and the formate is quickly
removed by the supporting blood supply ... . Formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FDH) is the major
metabolic enzyme involved in the metabolism of formaldehyde in all of the tissues studies; it
is widely distributed in animal tissues, particularly in the rat nasal mucosa,
and is specific for the glutathione adduct of formaldehyde. If formaldehyde is not metabolized by FDH, then
it can form cross linkages between proteins, between protein and single-stranded
DNA ... or enter the 1 carbon intermediary metabolic pool by initially binding
to tetrahydrofolate ... . Several enzymes can catalyze the reaction that
oxidizes formaldehyde to formic acid ...
however, FDH is the primary enzyme that performs this function and is specific
for formaldehyde ... . Endogenous of
exogenous formaldehyde enters the FDH
metabolic pathway and is eliminated from the body as metabolites, primarily as
formate or CO2. Formaldehyde
dehydrogenase activity does not incr ... in response to formaldehyde exposure ... thus no incr in
metabolism occurs. [DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for
Formaldehyde p. 176 (1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Absorption, Distribution & Excretion:
... ABSORBED FROM ALIMENTARY & RESP TRACTS. [Thienes,
C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger,
1972. 179]**PEER REVIEWED**
IN RATS & MICE ADMIN (14)C-FORMALDEHYDE INTRAGASTRICALLY, 40% OF DOSE ...
/WAS/ EXPIRED AS CARBON DIOXIDE, 10% /WAS/ EXCRETED IN URINE & 1% IN FECES
AFTER 12 HR; CARCASSES CONTAINED 20% AFTER 24 HR & 10% AFTER 4 DAYS. WHEN
FEMALE RATS WERE ADMIN (14)C-FORMALDEHYDE IP AT DOSE LEVEL OF 70 MG/KG, 82%
OF DOSE WAS EXPIRED AS (14)CARBON DIOXIDE & 13-14% WAS EXCRETED VIA KIDNEYS
... . [The Chemical Society. Foreign Compound Metabolism in
Mammals Volume 3. London: The Chemical Society, 1975. 340]**PEER REVIEWED**
Less than 1% of the /skin/ applied dose of (14)C /as formaldehyde/ was excreted or concn in the
major organs of the monkey. Approx 10 times this amt was found in the rat and
guinea pig excreta and internal organs. ... The skin of the monkey was much less
permeable to formaldehyde than that of
rodents. A significant proportion ... was found after 72 hr at the site of
application, in the skin and fur, and ... for rodents ... in the remaining
carcass. [Jeffcoat AR et al; Chem Ind Inst Toxicol Conf on
Formaldehyde Toxicol p.38-50 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Airborne (14)C-labeled formaldehyde
was primarily absorbed in the upper respiratory tract of rats, leading to a very
high radioactive concn in the nasal mucosa. ... [Heck HD et
al; Chem Ind Inst Toxicol, Conf on Formaldehyde Toxicol p.26-37 (1983)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The effect of subchronic exposure to formaldehyde on blood formaldehyde concentrations was studied in
monkeys. Young adult Rhesus monkeys were exposed to 0 or 6.00 ppm formaldehyde vapor 6 hours per day, 5 days per
week for 4 weeks. Blood samples were obtained at 7 minutes and at 45 hours after
the last exposure. The average blood formaldehyde concentrations obtained 7 minutes
and 45 hours after exposure were 1.84 and 2.04 ug/g, respectively. The average
blood formaldehyde concentraton in the
controls was 2.42 ug/g. None of the concentrations were statistically different
from each other. Subchronic exposure to a relatively high concentration of formaldehyde does not significantly increase
the blood formaldehyde concentration of
Rhesus monkeys. This result agrees with those of previous studies in rats and
humans. Because formaldehyde is rapidly
metabolized it does not accumulate in the blood or produce toxic effects at
distant sites. The concentration of endogenous formaldehyde in the blood of Rhesus monkeys is
similar to that of humans. [Casanova M et al; Food and Chem
Toxicol 26 (8): 715-6 (1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is readily absorbed from
the respiratory & oral tract, & to a much lesser degree from the skin.
Formaldehyde is the simplest aldehyde
& reacts readily with macromolecules such as proteins & nucleic acids.
Inhalation exposure has been reported to result in almost complete absorption.
Dermal absorption due to contact with formaldehyde-containing materials such as
textiles, perma-press clothing, cosmetics, or other materials is of low order of
magnitude. ... Formaldehyde is normally
converted & excreted as carbon dioxide in the air, as formic acid in the
urine, or as one of many breakdown products from one carbon pool metab. Because
of rapid absorption by both the oral & inhalation route & the rapid
metab, little or no formaldehyde is
excreted unmetabolized. Rats exposed to 14C-formaldehyde by inhalation had 40% of the
radiolabel excreted in the air & 20% in the urine & feces; 40% remained
in the carcass. [Sullivan, J.B. Jr., G.R. Krieger (eds.).
Hazardous Materials Toxicology-Clinical Principles of Environmental Health.
Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1992. 974]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is absorbed rapidly and
almost completely from the rodent intestinal tract. In rats, about 40% of an
oral dose of (14)C-formaldehyde (7
mg/kg) was eliminated as (14)C-carbon dioxide within 12 hours, while 10% was
excreted in the urine and 1% in the feces. A substantial portion of the
radioactivity remained in the carcass as products of metabolic incorporation.
[IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for
Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V62 296 (1995)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde vapors are readily
absorbed from the respiratory tract. Due to rapid metabolism to formate, little,
if any, intact formaldehyde can be found
in the blood of humans or animals exposed to formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is also readily absorbed from the
GI tract and meets with the same metabolic fate as formaldehyde after inhalation exposure. The
studies available in the open literature suggest that very little formaldehyde is absorbed via the dermal route.
In all cases, absorption appears to be limited to cell layers immediately
adjacent tot eh point of contact. Entry of formaldehyde into the blood (i.e., systemic
absorption) occurs to a very limited extent, if at all.
[DHHS/ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 166
(1999)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Biological Half-Life:
... IN SEVERAL SPECIES ... FORMALDEHYDE HAS HALF-LIFE OF ONLY 1 MIN; BUT
THE HALF-LIFE FOR FORMIC ACID IS SPECIES DEPENDENT. [The
Chemical Society. Foreign Compound Metabolism in Mammals Volume 3. London: The
Chemical Society, 1975. 339]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is rapidly metabolized
with a half-life in the blood of approx 1.5 min. This half-life is based
primarily on primate data although available human data are consistent with this
observation of a very short half-life. Data from other species suggest that the
half-life of formaldehyde is fairly
similar in many species. [Sullivan, J.B. Jr., G.R. Krieger
(eds.). Hazardous Materials Toxicology-Clinical Principles of Environmental
Health. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1992. 974]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Mechanism of Action:
The exact mechanism by which formaldehyde exerts its irritant, corrosive,
and cytotoxic effects is not known. Aldehydes as a group are reactive chemicals
with a highly electronegative oxygen atom and less electronegative atoms of
carbon(s), and hence have a substantial dipole moment. The carbonyl atom is the
electrophilic site of these type of molecules, making it react easily with
nucleophilic sites on cell membranes and in body tissues and fluids such as the
amino groups in protein and DNA ... . [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 191 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... formaldehyde readily combines
with free, unprotonated amino groups of amino acids to yield hydroxymethyl amino
acid derivatives and a proton (H+), which is believed to be related to its
germicidal properties. Higher concn will precipitate protein ... . Either one of
these mechanistic properties or perhaps other unknown properties may be
responsible for the irritation effects seen with formaldehyde exposure. It is probable that
formaldehyde toxicity occurs when
intracellular levels saturate formaldehyde dehydrogenase activity,
overwhelming the natural protection against formaldehyde, and allowing the unmetabolized
intact molecule to exert its effects locally. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehye p. 192 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Interactions:
MICE EXPOSED TO 11 COMBINATIONS OF ACROLEIN-FORMALDEHYDE; RESPIRATORY RATE MONITORED &
RESULTS INDICATE COMPETITIVE AGONISM BETWEEN ACROLEIN & FORMALDEHYDE. [KANE LE,
ALARIE Y; AM IND HYG ASSOC J 39 (4): 270-4 (1978)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
/IN GUINEA PIGS/ 1 HR EXPOSURE TO CONCN OF 0.3 PPM & ABOVE PRODUCED INCR
IN PULMONARY FLOW RESISTANCE ACCOMPANIED BY LESSER DECREASE IN COMPLIANCE. ...
THE RESPONSE ... POTENTIATED BY SIMULTANEOUS ADMIN OF ... SODIUM CHLORIDE
AEROSOL OF SUBMICRON PARTICLES. THE VALUES FOR PULMONARY RESISTANCE REMAINED
ABOVE PREEXPOSURE LEVELS FOR 1 HR AFTER THE END OF EXPOSURE WHEN THE GAS-AEROSOL
COMBINATION WAS USED. THIS PROLONGED RESPONSE ... SUGGEST THAT THE POTENTIATION
IS BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE ATTACHMENT OF FORMALDEHYDE TO THE PARTICLES TO FORM AN
IRRITANT AEROSOL. THIS ... IS FURTHER SUPPORTED BY FACT THAT WHEN 3, 10 & 30
MG/CU M CONCN OF SODIUM CHLORIDE WERE USED, THE POTENTIATION INCR WITH
INCREASING CONCENTRATION OF PARTICLES. THE RESPONSE TO A GIVEN CONCN OF FORMALDEHYDE PLUS AEROSOL BREATHED BY NOSE WAS
GREATER THAN THE RESPONSE TO THE GAS ALONE BREATHED THROUGH A TREACHEAL CANNULA.
[Amdur, M.O., J. Doull, C.D. Klaasen (eds). Casarett and
Doull's Toxicology. 4th ed. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1991. 867]**PEER
REVIEWED**
C3H/10T1/2 cells were treated with N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine then
repeatedly exposed to /formaldehyde/
(0.1-2.0 ug/ml). Exposure of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine initiated
cultures to /formaldehyde/ of 0.5 or 1.0
ug/ml in a variety of treatment regimens resulted in focus formation in up to 9%
of the treated dishes. Transformed foci were observed in < 2% of the cultures
treated N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine or /formaldehyde/ alone. Formaldehyde ... appears to be only a weak
tumor promotor for C3H/10T1/2 cell transformation. [Frazelle
JH et al; Cancer Res 43 (7): 3236-9 (1983)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A study was performed on four groups of Sprague-Dawley rats: one exposed to
wood dust (25 mg/cu m), another to formaldehyde (12.4 ppm) and a third to both
wood dust and formaldehyde; the fourth
group served a control group. After 104 weeks of exposure the nose and lungs
were examined histologically. One well differentiated squamous cell carcinoma
was found in the formaldehyde group.
Squamous cell metaplasia was found significantly more often among the formaldehyde exposed rats. Squamous cell
metaplasia with dysplasia was most frequently observed, however, in the group
exposed to both formaldehyde and wood
dust. There were also significantly more rats with pulmonary emphysema in the
groups exposed to wood dust than in the other groups.
[Holmstrom M et al; Acta Otolaryngol 108 (3-4): 274-83
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The combined effects on the nasal epithelium of mixtures of ozone and formaldehyde at cytotoxic and noncytotoxic
concentrations were examined. Male Wistar rats were exposed by inhalation during
22 hr/day for 3 consecutive days to 0.3, 1.0 or 3.0 ppm formaldehyde or to 0.2, 0.4, or 0.8 ppm ozone,
or they were sham exposed to clean air. Treatment related histopathological
nasal changes, such as dissarrangement, loss of cilia, and hyper/metaplasia of
the epithelium were seen at 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 ppm ozone and at 3 ppm formaldehyde. Simultaneous exposure to both
materials did not noticeable affect type, degree, and size the microscopic nasal
lesions. [Reuzel P GJ et al; J Toxicol Environ Health 29 (3):
279-92 (1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In cultured human bronchial fibroblasts exposed to the carcinogen
N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (NMU) in combination with formaldehyde, formaldehyde was observed to inhibit repair of
alkylation of DNA at the O6 guanine position induced by NMU. Whether formaldehyde enhances the effects of other
DNA-damaging agents has not yet been evaluated. [Rom, W.N.
(ed.). Environmental and Occupational Medicine. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little,
Brown and Company, 1992. 868]**PEER REVIEWED**
The sensory irritant effect of formaldehyde at 1.2 mg/cu m was shown to decr
when the chemical pyridine was injected into the chanber; such sensory
interactions occur in environmentally realistic situations.
[WHO; Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde p.138
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... experiments with mice ... and guinea pigs ... indicate that exposure to
low levels of formaldehyde enhances
allergic responses to intranasal admin of ovalbumin and suggest the possibility
of formaldehyde facilitation of allergic
responses to other respiratory allergens. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 236 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Pharmacology:
Therapeutic Uses:
Disinfectants; Fixatives [National Library of Medicine's
Medical Subject Headings online file (MeSH, 1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
DESENSITIZING TEETH /SOLN, USP/ /FORMER USE/ [Gilman, A.
G., L. S. Goodman, and A. Gilman. (eds.). Goodman and Gilman's The
Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 6th ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Co., Inc. 1980. 971]**PEER REVIEWED**
MEDICATION (VET): FOR VARIOUS SKIN DISEASES OF LARGE ANIMALS & DEMODECTIC
MANGE IN DOG /SOLN, USP/ [Osol, A. and J.E. Hoover, et al.
(eds.). Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences. 15th ed. Easton, Pennsylvania: Mack
Publishing Co., 1975. 1091]**PEER REVIEWED**
MEDICATION (VET): ANTISEPTICS, FUMIGANT, HAS BEEN USED IN TYMPANY, DIARRHEA,
MASTITIS, PNEUMONIA, INTERNAL BLEEDING. [Budavari, S. (ed.).
The Merck Index - Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs and Biologicals. Rahway, NJ:
Merck and Co., Inc., 1989. 604]**PEER REVIEWED**
MEDICATION (VET): ... In cattle ... foot-rot treatment baths ... Treatment of
foot-rot in sheep ... . [Humphreys, D.J. Veterinary
Toxicology. 3rd ed. London, England: Bailliere Tindell, 1988. 192]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Interactions:
MICE EXPOSED TO 11 COMBINATIONS OF ACROLEIN-FORMALDEHYDE; RESPIRATORY RATE MONITORED &
RESULTS INDICATE COMPETITIVE AGONISM BETWEEN ACROLEIN & FORMALDEHYDE. [KANE LE,
ALARIE Y; AM IND HYG ASSOC J 39 (4): 270-4 (1978)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
/IN GUINEA PIGS/ 1 HR EXPOSURE TO CONCN OF 0.3 PPM & ABOVE PRODUCED INCR
IN PULMONARY FLOW RESISTANCE ACCOMPANIED BY LESSER DECREASE IN COMPLIANCE. ...
THE RESPONSE ... POTENTIATED BY SIMULTANEOUS ADMIN OF ... SODIUM CHLORIDE
AEROSOL OF SUBMICRON PARTICLES. THE VALUES FOR PULMONARY RESISTANCE REMAINED
ABOVE PREEXPOSURE LEVELS FOR 1 HR AFTER THE END OF EXPOSURE WHEN THE GAS-AEROSOL
COMBINATION WAS USED. THIS PROLONGED RESPONSE ... SUGGEST THAT THE POTENTIATION
IS BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE ATTACHMENT OF FORMALDEHYDE TO THE PARTICLES TO FORM AN
IRRITANT AEROSOL. THIS ... IS FURTHER SUPPORTED BY FACT THAT WHEN 3, 10 & 30
MG/CU M CONCN OF SODIUM CHLORIDE WERE USED, THE POTENTIATION INCR WITH
INCREASING CONCENTRATION OF PARTICLES. THE RESPONSE TO A GIVEN CONCN OF FORMALDEHYDE PLUS AEROSOL BREATHED BY NOSE WAS
GREATER THAN THE RESPONSE TO THE GAS ALONE BREATHED THROUGH A TREACHEAL CANNULA.
[Amdur, M.O., J. Doull, C.D. Klaasen (eds). Casarett and
Doull's Toxicology. 4th ed. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1991. 867]**PEER
REVIEWED**
C3H/10T1/2 cells were treated with N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine then
repeatedly exposed to /formaldehyde/
(0.1-2.0 ug/ml). Exposure of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine initiated
cultures to /formaldehyde/ of 0.5 or 1.0
ug/ml in a variety of treatment regimens resulted in focus formation in up to 9%
of the treated dishes. Transformed foci were observed in < 2% of the cultures
treated N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine or /formaldehyde/ alone. Formaldehyde ... appears to be only a weak
tumor promotor for C3H/10T1/2 cell transformation. [Frazelle
JH et al; Cancer Res 43 (7): 3236-9 (1983)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A study was performed on four groups of Sprague-Dawley rats: one exposed to
wood dust (25 mg/cu m), another to formaldehyde (12.4 ppm) and a third to both
wood dust and formaldehyde; the fourth
group served a control group. After 104 weeks of exposure the nose and lungs
were examined histologically. One well differentiated squamous cell carcinoma
was found in the formaldehyde group.
Squamous cell metaplasia was found significantly more often among the formaldehyde exposed rats. Squamous cell
metaplasia with dysplasia was most frequently observed, however, in the group
exposed to both formaldehyde and wood
dust. There were also significantly more rats with pulmonary emphysema in the
groups exposed to wood dust than in the other groups.
[Holmstrom M et al; Acta Otolaryngol 108 (3-4): 274-83
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The combined effects on the nasal epithelium of mixtures of ozone and formaldehyde at cytotoxic and noncytotoxic
concentrations were examined. Male Wistar rats were exposed by inhalation during
22 hr/day for 3 consecutive days to 0.3, 1.0 or 3.0 ppm formaldehyde or to 0.2, 0.4, or 0.8 ppm ozone,
or they were sham exposed to clean air. Treatment related histopathological
nasal changes, such as dissarrangement, loss of cilia, and hyper/metaplasia of
the epithelium were seen at 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 ppm ozone and at 3 ppm formaldehyde. Simultaneous exposure to both
materials did not noticeable affect type, degree, and size the microscopic nasal
lesions. [Reuzel P GJ et al; J Toxicol Environ Health 29 (3):
279-92 (1990)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In cultured human bronchial fibroblasts exposed to the carcinogen
N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (NMU) in combination with formaldehyde, formaldehyde was observed to inhibit repair of
alkylation of DNA at the O6 guanine position induced by NMU. Whether formaldehyde enhances the effects of other
DNA-damaging agents has not yet been evaluated. [Rom, W.N.
(ed.). Environmental and Occupational Medicine. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little,
Brown and Company, 1992. 868]**PEER REVIEWED**
The sensory irritant effect of formaldehyde at 1.2 mg/cu m was shown to decr
when the chemical pyridine was injected into the chanber; such sensory
interactions occur in environmentally realistic situations.
[WHO; Environ Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde p.138
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... experiments with mice ... and guinea pigs ... indicate that exposure to
low levels of formaldehyde enhances
allergic responses to intranasal admin of ovalbumin and suggest the possibility
of formaldehyde facilitation of allergic
responses to other respiratory allergens. [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 236 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Minimum Fatal Dose Level:
Approximate Minimum Lethal Dose (MLD) (150-lb man): 30 ml
[Arena, J. M. Poisoning: Toxicology, Symptoms, Treatments.
Fourth Edition. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1979.
97]**PEER REVIEWED**
Male single oral ingestion 517 mg/kg [DHHS/ATSDR;
Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde p. 116 (1999)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Environmental Fate & Exposure:
Environmental Fate/Exposure Summary:
Formaldehyde is ubiquitous in the
environment; it is an important endogenous chemical that occurs in most life
forms, including humans. It is formed naturally in the troposphere during the
oxidation of hydrocarbons. Formaldehyde's production and use in the
manufacture of resins, disinfectants, preservatives, and a variety of other
chemicals may result in its release to the environment through various waste
streams. Formaldehyde's production and
use as a fertilizer results in its direct release to the environment. If
released to air, formaldehyde will exist
solely as a gas in the ambient atmosphere. Gas-phase formaldehyde will be degraded in the
atmosphere by reaction with photochemically-produced hydroxyl radicals; the
half-life for this reaction in air is 41 hrs. Formaldehyde absorbs ultraviolet radiation at
wavelengths of >360 nm. Formaldehyde
has a half-life of 6 hrs in simulated sunlight. If released to soil, formaldehyde is expected to have very high
mobility based upon an estimated Koc of 37. Volatilization from moist soil
surfaces is not expected to be an important fate process based upon a Henry's
Law constant of 3.4X10-7 atm-cu m/mole. Formaldehyde volatilizes from dry soil
surfaces because it is a gas. If released into water, formaldehyde is not expected to adsorb to
suspended solids and sediment based upon the estimated Koc. Formaldehyde readily biodegrades under both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the environment. Formaldehyde in aqueous effluent was degraded
by activated sludge and sewage in 48-72 hr. In a die-away test using water from
a stagnant lake, degradation was complete in 30 and 40 hrs under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions, respectively. Volatilization from water surfaces is not
expected to be an important fate process based upon this compound's Henry's Law
constant. Experiments performed on a variety of fish and shrimp show no
bioconcentration of formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is not expected to undergo
hydrolysis in the environment because of the lack of hydrolyzable functional
groups. Occupational exposure to formaldehyde may occur through inhalation and
dermal contact with this compound at workplaces where formaldehyde is produced or used. Monitoring
data indicate that the general population is exposed to formaldehyde via inhalation of ambient air,
ingestion of food, and dermal contact with cosmetic and aerosol products
containing formaldehyde. Concns of formaldehyde in outdoor and indoor air range
from 1 to 20 ug/cu m and 25 to 100 ug/cu m, respectively. (SRC)
**PEER REVIEWED**
Probable Routes of Human Exposure:
... /VAPORS/ GIVEN OFF DURING HOT MOLDING OF SYNTH RESINS (/IS A/ COMMON
SOURCE OF EXPOSURE) ... A SURVEY OF 6 FUNERAL HOMES ... REVEALED MEAN CONCN, IN
DIFFERENT ESTABLISHMENTS, BETWEEN 0.25 & 1.39 PPM. ... /EXPOSURES ARE
ENCOUNTERED/ IN PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE
RESIN MOULDING PLANT ... /FROM WHICH/ CHRONIC AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION LOWERED FORCED
EXPIRATORY VOL/FORCED VOL CAPACITY RATIO & EYE, NOSE & THROAT IRRITATION
& LOWER RESP TRACT SYMPTOMS /HAVE BEEN OBSERVED/.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 5th
ed. Cincinnati, OH:American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
1986. 276]**PEER REVIEWED**
... /EXPOSURES TO/ FORMALDEHYDE VAPOR
EMISSIONS IN PERMANENT-PRESS FABRICS INDUSTRY (8 PLANTS) /HAVE BEEN REPORTED IN
WHICH/ CONCN RANGING ... FROM 0.3 TO 2.7 PPM (IN SEWING AREA) WITH AVG OF 0.68
PPM /WERE DETECTED/. COMPLAINTS CONSISTED OF ANNOYING ODOR (ODOR THRESHOLD,
BELOW 1.0 PPM), CONSTANT PRICKLING IRRITATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES &
DISTURBED SLEEP. [American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and
Biological Exposure Indices. 5th ed. Cincinnati, OH:American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1986. 276]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH (NOES Survey 1981-1983) has statistically estimated that 1,329,322
workers (441,902 of these are female) are potentially exposed to formaldehyde in the US(1). The NOES Survey
does not include farm workers(SRC). Occupational exposure to formaldehyde may occur through inhalation and
dermal contact with this compound at workplaces where formaldehyde is produced or used(2).
Monitoring data indicate that the general population may be exposed to formaldehyde via inhalation of ambient air,
ingestion of food, and dermal contact with cosmetic and aerosol products
containing formaldehyde(2).
[(1) NIOSH; National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES)
(1983) (2) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of
Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 243 (1995)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Humans are exposed to formaldehyde
from a variety of sources. The major source of atmospheric discharge is from
combustion processes specifically from auto emissions and also from the
photooxidation of hydrocarbons in auto emissions(1,2). Additional exposure to
formaldehyde emissions comes from its
use as an embalming fluid in anatomy labs, morgues, etc and its use as a
fumigant and sterilant(1). Resin treated fabric, rugs, paper, etc and materials
such as particle board and plywood which use resin adhesives and foam insulation
release formaldehyde which may build up
in homes and occupational atmospheres(1,2). Contact with industrial waste water,
especially from lumber related operations where formaldehyde is used in adhesives, has
resulted in the Pacific Northwest, Northeast, parts of Texas, and lumber areas
of the south(1)(SRC). The estimated daily intake of formaldehyde among exposed Finnish workers is
3000 ug, whereas heavily exposed workers (particle-board and glue production,
foundry work) is 10,000 ug(3). [(1) Kitchens JF et al;
Investigation of Selected Potential Environmental Contaminants: Formaldehyde p.
22-98 USEPA 560/2-76-009 (1976) (2) National Research Council; Formaldehyde and
Other Aldehydes p. 2-1 to 5-96 USEPA 600/6-82-002 (1982) (3) Hemminki K, Vainio
H; Human Exposure to Potentially Carcinogenic Compounds. IARC Sci Publ 59: 37-45
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In a 12-week study of exposure in a gross anatomy lab of a medical school,
44% of breathing room samples and 11% of ambient air samples were >1.0 ppm
the ceiling recommended by ACGIH; Half the breathing zone samples were between
0.6-1.0 ppm and the range was 0.3-2.63 ppm(1). A 1976 report estimates that 8000
US workers were potentially exposed to formaldehyde during its production(3). A more
recent estimate of the number of exposed workers in industries producing and
using formaldehyde and its derivatives
range from 1.4-1.75 million(2). Concentrations of formaldehyde in occupational areas dating from
the 1960's and early 1970's are: textile plant 0-2.7 ppm, 0.68 ppm avg; garment
factory 0.9-2.7 ppm; clothing store 0.9-3.3 ppm; laminating plant 0.04-10 ppm;
funeral homes 0.09-5.26 ppm, 0.25-1.39 ppm avg; resin manufacture and paper
production 16-30 ppm; paper conditioning 0.9-1.6 ppm; wood processing 31.2 ppm
max(2). Concns in occupational settings dating from the late 70's are: textile
plants 0.1-0.5 ppm, 0.2 ppm avg; shoe factory 0.9-2.7 ppm, 1.9 ppm avg; particle
board plant 0.1-4.9 ppm, 1.15 ppm avg; plywood plant 0.1-1.2 ppm, 0.35 ppm avg;
wooden furniture manufacturing plant 0.1-5.4 ppm, 1.35 ppm avg; adhesive plants
0.8-3.5 ppm, 1.75 ppm avg; foundries 0.05-2.0 ppm, 0.6 ppm avg; construction
sites 0.5-7.0 ppm, 2.8 ppm avg; hospitals and clinics 0.05-3.5 ppm, 0.7 ppm
avg(2). More recent survey results for occupational environments include:
fertilizer production 0.2-1.9 ppm; dyestuffs <0.1-5.8 ppm; textile
manufacture <0.1-1.4 ppm; resins (foundry) <0.1-5.5 ppm; bronze foundry
0.12-0.8 ppm; iron foundry <0.02-18.3 ppm; treated paper 0.14-0.99 ppm;
hospital autopsy room 2.2-7.9 ppm; plywood industry 1.0-2.5 ppm; urea-formaldehyde foam applicators <0.08-2.4
ppm(4). [(1) Skisak, CM; Amer Ind Hyg Assoc J 44: 948-50
(1983) (2) IARC; Monograph. Some Industrial Chemicals and Dyestuffs 29: 345-89
(1982) (3) National Research Council; Formaldehyde and other Aldehydes p.2-1 to
5-96 USEPA 600/6-82-002 (1982) (4) Bernstein RS et al; Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 45:
778-85 (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Potential occupational exposure to formaldehyde are as follows: agricultural
workers, anatomists, beauticians, biologists, bookbinders, botanists, chemical
production workers, cosmetic formulators, crease-resistant textile finishers,
disinfectant makers, disinfectors, dress-goods shop personnel, electrical
insulation makers, embalmers, embalming fluid makers, fireproofers, formaldehyde production workers, formaldehyde resin makers, foundry employees,
fumigators, fur processors, furniture makers, glue and adhesive makers, hide
preservers, histology technicians (including necropsy and autopsy technicians),
ink makers, lacquerers and lacquer makers, medical personnel (including
pathologists), mirror manufacturers, paper makers, particle-board makers,
photographic film makers, plastic workers, plywood makers, rubber makers,
taxidermists, textiles mordanters and printers, textiles waterproofers, varnish
workers, wood preservers(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the
Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland:
WHO 62: 225 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The avg concn of formaldehyde in
workroom air in formaldehyde and resin
manufacturing plants ranged from 0.1-14.2 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom air of plywood mills,
particle-board mills, furniture factories, other wood product and paper mills
ranged from 0.08-7.4 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom air in textile mills
and garment factories ranged from 0.1 to 1.9 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom air in foundries and
other industrial facilities ranged from 0.04 to 38.2 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn
of formaldehyde in workroom air in
mortuaries, hospitals, and laboratories ranged from 0.05 to 4.2 mg/cu m(1). The
avg concn of formaldehyde in workroom
air in building sites, agriculture, forestry, and misc other activities ranged
from <0.1 to 4.3 mg/cu m(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the
Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland:
WHO 62: 226-41 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Cigarette smoke and products of combustion contain formaldehyde(1). Cigarette smoke contains 15
to 20 mg formaldehyde per cigarette(1).
Avg formaldehyde exposure from passive
smoking is between 0.23 to 0.27 ppm(1). A 'pack-a-day' smoker may inhale as much
as 0.4-2.0 mg formaldehyde(1).
[(1) Bingham E et al, eds; Patty's Toxicology. 5th ed. NY,
NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 5: 980-3 (2001)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Several studies have been conducted to determine exposure of students in
laboratories(1). The concn of formaldehyde in the breathing zone at
dissecting tables and in the ambient air in a medical school in the United
States was found to be >1.2 mg/cu m in 44% of the breathing zone samples and
11 ambient air samples; 50% of the breathing zone samples contained 0.7-1.2
mg/cu m, with a range of 0.4-3.2 mg/cu m(1). During the 1982-82 academic year,
the airborne concn of formaldehyde at a
university in the US was 7-16.5 ppm in the laboratory, 1.97-2.62 ppm in the
stockroom, and <1 ppm in the public hallway(1). In another study, of 253
samples of air taken during laboratory dissection classes at a university in the
US, 97 contained concns above the detection limit of 0.01 mg/cu m; all but four
samples had levels <1.2 mg/cu m(1). The avg concn detected was 0.5 mg/cu
m(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 226-41
(1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Average Daily Intake:
AIR INTAKE: Assume 1 to 100 ug/cu m(1), 20 ug to 2,000 ug formaldehyde(SRC). [(1)
IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 242 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In Sweden between Dec 1986 to Aug 1987, the mean yearly exposure to formaldehyde from air pollution was 1.2 ug/cu
m(1). The estimated daily exposure of the Finnish population to formaldehyde from community air is 100 ug and
from the home environment, 1,000 ug(2). [(1) Bostrom CE et
al; Environ Health Perspect 102: 39-47 (1994) (2) Hemminki K, Vainio H; Human
Exposure to Potentially Carcinogenic Compounds. IARC Sci Publ 59: 37-45
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Natural Pollution Sources:
Formaldehyde is ubiquitous in the
environment; it is an important endogenous chemical that occurs in most life
forms, including humans(1). It is formed naturally in the troposphere during the
oxidation of hydrocarbons, which react with hydroxyl radicals and ozone to form
formaldehyde and other aldehydes, as
intermediates in a series of reactions that ultimately lead to the formation of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, hydrogen and water(1). Of the hydrocarbons
found in the troposphere, methane is the single most important source of formaldehyde(1). Terpenes and isoprene,
emitted by foliage, react with hydroxyl radicals, forming formaldehyde as an intermediate product(1).
Because of their short half-life, these potentially important sources of formaldehyde are important only in the
vicinity of vegetation(1). Formaldehyde
is one of the volatile compounds formed in the early stages of decomposition of
plant residues in the soil(1). Formaldehyde occurs naturally in fruits and
other foods(1). Other sources are forest fires, animal wastes, microbial
products of biological systems, and plant volatiles(2,3). Formaldehyde can also be formed in seawater by
photochemical processes(4). However, calculations of sea-air exchange indicates
that this process is probably a minor source for formaldehyde in the sea(4).
[(1) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic
Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 242 (1995) (2) Graedel
TE; Chemical Compounds in the atmosphere. NY, NY Academic Press p. 161 (1978)
(3) Kitchens JF et al; Investigation of selected potential environmental
contaminants: formaldehyde. Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst USEPA
560/2-76-009 p. 22-80 (1976) (4) Mopper K, Stahovec WL; Marine Chem 19: 305-21
(1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Artificial Pollution Sources:
Formaldehyde's production and use in
the manufacture phenol-formaldehyde
resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, acetal
resins, 1,4-butanediol, melamine resins, pentaerythritol,
hexamethylenetetramine, urea-formaldehyde concentrates, methylene
diisocyanate(1), ethylene glycol, pentaerythritol, hexamethylenetetramine, and a
variety of other chemicals(2), and its use as a disinfectant, biocide, embalming
fluid, preservative, reducing agent (eg, in recovery of gold and silver),
corrosion inhibitor in oil wells, and industrial sterilant(2) may result in its
release to the environment through various waste streams(SRC). Formaldehyde's production and use as an
fertilizer(2) results in its direct release to the environment(SRC).
[(1) Gerberich HR, Seaman GC; Kirk-Othmer Encycl Chem
Technol. 4th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 11: 944 (1994) (2) Lewis RJ Sr,
ed; Hawley's Condensed Chem Dict. 13th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc, p.
514 (1997)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental Fate:
TERRESTRIAL FATE: Based on a classification scheme(1), an estimated Koc value
of 37(SRC), determined from a log Kow of 0.35(2) and a regression-derived
equation(3), indicates that formaldehyde
is expected to have very high mobility in soil(SRC). Volatilization of formaldehyde from moist soil surfaces is not
expected to be an important fate process(SRC) given a Henry's Law constant of
3.4X10-7 atm-cu m/mole(4). Volatilization of formaldehyde from dry soil surfaces because it
is a gas(5). Formaldehyde readily
biodegrades under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the environment but
most of these tests have been conducted under aqueous conditions(SRC). Formaldehyde in aqueous effluent was degraded
by activated sludge and sewage in 48-72 hr(6-10). In a die-away test using water
from a stagnant lake, degradation was complete in 30 and 40 hrs under aerobic
and anaerobic conditions, respectively(7). [(1) Swann RL et
al; Res Rev 85: 17-28 (1983) (2) Hansch C et al; Exploring QSAR. Hydrophobic,
Electronic, and Steric Constants. ACS Prof Ref Book. Heller SR, consult. ed.,
Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc p. 3 (1995) (3) Lyman WJ et al; Handbook of
Chemical Property Estimation Methods. Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc pp. 4-9
(1990) (4) Betterton EA, Hoffmann MR; Environ Sci Technol 22: 1415-8 (1988) (5)
Boublik T et al; The vapor pressures of pure substances. Vol. 17. Amsterdam,
Netherlands: Elsevier Sci. Publ p. 44 (1984) (6) CITI; Biodegradation and
Bioaccumulation Data of Existing Chemicals. Formaldehyde (50-00-0). Available
from the Database Query page at http://www.citi.or.jp/data/searchidx.htm as May
8, 2001. (7) Kitchens JF et al; Investigation of selected potential
environmental contaminants; formaldehyde. Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst
USEPA 560/2-76-009 p. 99-110 (1976) (8) Hatfield R; Ind Eng Chem 49: 192-6
(1957) (9) Heukelekian H, Rand MC; J Water Pollut Control Assoc 29: 1040-53
(1955) (10) Verschueren K; Handbook of environmental data on organic chemicals
4th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley and Sons, p. 1170-4 (2001)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
AQUATIC FATE: Based on a classification scheme(1), an estimated Koc value of
37(SRC), determined from a log Kow of 0.35(2) and a regression-derived
equation(3), indicates that formaldehyde
is not expected to adsorb to suspended solids and sediment(SRC). Volatilization
from water surfaces is not expected(3) based upon a Henry's Law constant of
3.4X10-7 atm-cu m/mole(4). According to a classification scheme(5), a BCF of
3(SRC), from its log Kow(2) and a regression-derived equation(6), suggests the
potential for bioconcentration in aquatic organisms is low(SRC). Formaldehyde readily biodegrades under both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the environment(SRC). Formaldehyde in aqueous effluent was degraded
by activated sludge and sewage in 48-72 hr(7-11). In a die-away test using water
from a stagnant lake, degradation was complete in 30 and 40 hrs under aerobic
and anaerobic conditions, respectively(8). [(1) Swann RL et
al; Res Rev 85: 17-28 (1983) (2) Hansch C et al; Exploring QSAR. Hydrophobic,
Electronic, and Steric Constants. ACS Prof Ref Book. Heller SR, consult. ed.,
Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc p. 3 (1995) (3) Lyman WJ et al; Handbook of
Chemical Property Estimation Methods. Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc pp. 4-9,
15-1 to 15-29 (1990) (4) Betterton EA, Hoffmann MR; Environ Sci Technol 22:
1415-8 (1988) (5) Franke C et al; Chemosphere 29: 1501-14 (1994) (6) Meylan WM
et al; Environ Toxicol Chem 18: 664-72 (1999) (7) CITI; Biodegradation and
Bioaccumulation Data of Existing Chemicals. Formaldehyde (50-00-0). Available
from the Database Query page at http://www.citi.or.jp/data/searchidx.htm as May
8, 2001. (8) Kitchens JF et al; Investigation of selected potential
environmental contaminants; formaldehyde. Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst
USEPA 560/2-76-009 p. 99-110 (1976) (9) Hatfield R; Ind Eng Chem 49: 192-6
(1957) (10) Heukelekian H, Rand MC; J Water Pollut Control Assoc 29: 1040-53
(1955) (11) Verschueren K; Handbook of environmental data on organic chemicals
4th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley and Sons, p. 1170-4 (2001)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
ATMOSPHERIC FATE: According to a model of gas/particle partitioning of
semivolatile organic compounds in the atmosphere(1), formaldehyde, which has a vapor pressure of
3,890 mm Hg at 25 deg C(2), will exist in the gas phase in the ambient
atmosphere(SRC). Gas-phase formaldehyde
is degraded in the atmosphere by reaction with photochemically-produced hydroxyl
radicals(SRC); the half-life for this reaction in air is 41 hrs(SRC), calculated
from its rate constant of 9.4X10-12 cu cm/molecule-sec at 25 deg C(3). The
hydroxy radical initiated oxidation of formaldehyde also occurs in cloud droplets to
form formic acid, a component of acid rain(4). Formaldehyde absorbs ultraviolet radiation at
wavelengths of >360 nm(5); therefore, formaldehyde may directly photolyze in
sunlight(SRC). Formaldehyde has a
half-life of 6 hrs in simulated sunlight(5). The predicted half-life of formaldehyde due to photolysis in the lower
atmosphere is 1.6 hrs at a solar zenith of 40 degrees(5). Formaldehyde reacts with the NO3 radical by
H-atom abstraction with a half-life of 12 days (assuming an average NO3 radical
concentration of 2X10+9/cu cm)(6). [(1) Bidleman TF; Environ
Sci Technol 22: 361-367 (1988) (2) Boublik T et al; The vapor pressures of pure
substances. Vol. 17. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Sci Publ p. 44 (1984) (3)
Kwok ESC, Atkinson R; Estimation of hydroxyl radical reaction rate constants for
gas-phase organic compounds using a structure-reactivity relationship: an
update. Riverside, CA: Univ CA, Statewide Air Pollut Res Ctr. CMA Contract No.
ARC-8.0-OR (1994) (4) Chameides WL, Davis DD; Nature 304: 427-9 (1983) (5) Su F
et al; J Phys Chem 83: 3185-91 (1979) (4) Calvert JG et al; Science 175: 751-52
(1972) (6) Atkinson R et al; J Phys Chem 88: 1210-5 (1984)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Environmental Biodegradation:
AEROBIC: Formaldehyde, present at 100
mg/l, reached 91% of its theoretical BOD in 2 weeks using an activated sludge
inoculum at 30 mg/l and the Japanese MITI test(1). Formaldehyde in aqueous effluent was degraded
by activated sludge and sewage in 48-72 hr(2-5). In a die-away test using water
from a stagnant lake, degradation was complete in 30 hours under aerobic
conditions(2). Other biodegradation screening tests gave half-lives ranging from
<1 to 17.3 days(6-11). [(1) CITI; Biodegradation and
Bioaccumulation Data of Existing Chemicals. Formaldehyde (50-00-0). Available
from the Database Query page at http://www.citi.or.jp/data/searchidx.htm as May
8, 2001. (2) Kitchens JF et al; Investigation of selected potential
environmental contaminants; formaldehyde. Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst
USEPA 560/2-76-009 p. 99-110 (1976) (3) Hatfield R; Ind Eng Chem 49: 192-6
(1957) (4) Heukelekian H, Rand MC; J Water Pollut Control Assoc 29: 1040-53
(1955) (5) Verschueren K; Handbook of environmental data on organic chemicals
4th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley and Sons, p. 1170-4 (2001) (6) Belly RT, Goodhue CT;
pp. 1103-7 in Proc Int Biodegrad Symposium 3rd (1976) (7) Dickerson Bw et al;
9th Industrial Waste Conf Purdue Univ Ext Ser 87: 311 (1955) (8) Gellman I,
Heukelekian H; J Water Pollut Contr Assoc 27: 1040-53 (1955) (9) Pauli O, Franke
G; pp. 52-60 in Biodeter Mater Proc Int Biodeter Symp 2nd. (1971) (10) Stafford
W, Northup HJ; Amer Dyestuff Reporter 44:355-9 (1955) (11) Hatfield R Ind Eng
Chem 49: 192-6 (1957)]**PEER REVIEWED**
ANAEROBIC: In a die-away test using water from a stagnant lake, degradation
was complete in 48 hours under anaerobic conditions(1). [(1)
Kitchens JF et al; Investigation of selected potential environmental
contaminants; formaldehyde. Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst USEPA
560/2-76-009 p. 99-110 (1976)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental Abiotic Degradation:
The rate constant for the gas-phase reaction of formaldehyde with photochemically-produced
hydroxyl radicals is 9.4X10-12 cu cm/molecule-sec at 25 deg C(1). This
corresponds to an atmospheric half-life of about 41 hrs at an atmospheric
concentration of 5X10+5 hydroxyl radicals per cu cm(1). The hydroxy radical
initiated oxidation of formaldehyde also
occurs in cloud droplets to form formic acid, a component of acid rain(2). Formaldehyde has a photolytic half-life of 6
hrs in simulated sunlight(3). There are two photolytic pathways, one producing
hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide, and the other producing H and HCO
radicals(4,5). The predicted half-life of formaldehyde due to photolysis in the lower
atmosphere is 1.6 hrs at a solar zenith of 40 degrees(4). Formaldehyde reacts with NO3 radicals by
H-atom abstraction with a half-life of 12 days (assuming an average NO3 radical
concn of 2X10+9/cu cm)(6). In water, formaldehyde is hydrated; the hydrate does not
have a chromophore that is capable of absorbing sunlight and photolytically
decomposing(2). Formaldehyde is not
expected to undergo hydrolysis in the environment because of the lack of
hydrolyzable functional groups(7). Solutions containing formaldehyde are unstable, both oxidizing
slowly to form formic acid and polymerizing to form oligomers(8). In the
presence of air and moisture, polymerization readily takes place in concentrated
solutions at room temperatures to form paraformaldehyde, a solid mixture of
linear polyoxymethylene glycols containing 90-99% formaldehyde(9). In dilute aqueous solution,
formaldehyde exists almost exclusively
as the hydrated gem-diol (CH2(OH)2)(10). [(1) Kwok ESC,
Atkinson R; Estimation of hydroxyl radical reaction rate constants for gas-phase
organic compounds using a structure-reactivity relationship: an update.
Riverside, CA: Univ CA, Statewide Air Pollut Res Ctr. CMA Contract No.
ARC-8.0-OR (1994) (2) Chameides WL, Davis DD; Nature 304: 427-9 (1983) (3) Su F
et al; J Phys Chem 83: 3185-91 (1979) (4) Calvert JG et al; Science 175: 751-52
(1972) (5) Lowe DC et al; Geophys Res Letters 7: 825-8 (1980) (6) Atkinson R et
al; J Phys Chem 88: 1210-5 (1984) (7) Lyman WJ et al; Handbook of Chemical
Property Estimation Methods. Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc pp. 7-4, 7-5 (1990)
(8) Gerberich HR, Seaman GC; Kirk-Othmer Encycl Chem Technol. 4th ed. NY, NY:
John Wiley and Sons 11: 931 (1994) (9) USEPA; Locating and Estimating Air
Emissions From Sources of Formaldehyde. USEPA-450/4-84-007E (1984) (10) Dong S,
Dasgupta PK; Environ Sci Technol 20: 637-40 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Environmental Bioconcentration:
Experiments performed on a variety of fish and shrimp show no
bioconcentration of formaldehyde(1,2).
[(1) Hose JE, Lightner DV; Aquaculture 21: 197-201 (1980) (2)
Sills JB, Allen JL; Prog Fish Cult 4: 67-8 (1979)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Soil Adsorption/Mobility:
The Koc of formaldehyde is estimated
as 37(SRC), using a log Kow of 0.35(1) and a regression-derived equation(2).
According to a classification scheme(3), this estimated Koc value suggests that
formaldehyde is expected to have very
high mobility in soil(SRC). Formaldehyde
gas adsorbs on clay minerals to a degree at high gas concns which is an
important quality in its use as a soil fumigant(4). [(1)
Hansch C et al; Exploring QSAR. Hydrophobic, Electronic, and Steric Constants.
ACS Prof Ref Book. Heller SR, consult. ed., Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc p. 3
(1995) (2) Lyman WJ et al; Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods.
Washington, DC: Amer Chem Soc pp. 4-9 (1990) (3) Swann RL et al; Res Rev 85:
17-28 (1983) (4) De SK, Chandra K; Sci Cult 44: 462-4 (1978)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Volatilization from Water/Soil:
The Henry's Law constant for formaldehyde is 3.4X10-7 atm-cu m/mole(1).
This Henry's Law constant indicates that formaldehyde is expected to be essentially
nonvolatile from water surfaces(2). The volatilization of formaldehyde from dry soil surfaces occurs
because it is a gas under ambient conditions(3). [(1)
Betterton EA, Hoffmann MR; Environ Sci Technol 22: 1415-8 (1988) (2) Lyman WJ et
al; Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods. Washington, DC: Amer Chem
Soc pp. 15-1 to 15-29 (1990) (3) Boublik T et al; The vapor pressures of pure
substances. Vol. 17. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Sci. Publ p. 44
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental Water Concentrations:
DRINKING WATER: Formaldehyde was not
detected in National Organics Reconnaissance Survey of Suspected Carcinogens in
Drinking Water(1). [(1) USEPA; Preliminary Assessment of
Suspected Carcinogens in Drinking Water. Office of Toxic Substances
(1975)]**PEER REVIEWED**
SURFACE WATER: Formaldehyde was
detected at 14 heavily industrialized river basins in the US; 1 of 204 sites
were positive at a concn of 12 ppb(1). Formaldehyde was detected only in hypolimnion
of stagnant lake in Japan(2). [(1) Ewing BB et al; Monitoring
to Detect Previously Unrecognized Pollutants in Surface Waters. USEPA
560/6-77-015, appendix USEPA 560/6-77-015a p. 75 (1977) (2) Kitchens JF et al;
Investigation of Selected Potential Environmental Contaminants: Formaldehyde.
Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst USEPA 560/2-76-009 p. 92-110 (1976)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
SEAWATER: Formaldehyde was not
detected in surface waters(1). [(1) Kitchens JF et al;
Investigation of Selected Potential Environmental Contaminants: Formaldehyde.
Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst USEPA 560/2-76-009 p. 92-110 (1976)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
RAIN/FOG: Formaldehyde levels in
rainwater collected in California were low, ranging from not detected to 0.06
ug/ml(1). The concn of formaldehyde in
rainwater from Mainz and Deuselbach, Germany, and Ireland ranged from 0.111 to
0.174 ppm(2). Formaldehyde was detected
in rain water collected from Enewetek Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean at
range of concns from 6.2-11.3 ppb(3). Concns of free formaldehyde measured in fogwater in
Corvallis, OR, ranged from 0.4 to 3 mg/l with a volume-weighted mean of 1.8
mg/l(4). Free formaldehyde concns in
fogwater in Riverside, CA, ranged from 0.12 to 6.8 mg/l, with approximately half
of the samples less than 3 mg/l(5) Status cloud water at Henninger Flats, CA,
which is typically is highly acidic and concentrated in inorganic pollutants,
had concns of free formaldehyde ranging
from 1.4 to 1.8 mg/l, comparable to mid-range Corvallis fogwater concns(5).
Formaldehyde concns ranging from 0.3 to
4.3 mg/l were found in cloud water samples collected in the Los Angeles
Basin(6). Formaldehyde concns in mist
samples in Long Beach and Marina del Ray, CA, were 0.25 and 0.56 mg/l,
respectively(1). The concn of formaldehyde in ice fog from Fairbanks, AK
ranged from 0.50 to 1.16 ppm(1). The mean (arithmetic) concn of formaldehyde in rain water fractions from
Mexico City and Rancho Viejo, Mexico ranged from 0.13 to 0.42 mg/l and from 0.18
to 0.21 mg/l, respectively(7). The mean values of formaldehyde in rain water at 3 locations in
Kobe City (Japan) from Jan 1992 to Dec 1992 were 0.032 mg/l (range, 0.001-0.15
mg/l), 0.035 mg/l (range, 0.001-0.18 mg/l), and 0.016 mg/l (range, 0.001-0.04
mg/l), respectively(8). [(1) Grosjean D, Wright B; Atmos
Environ 17: 2093-6 (1983) (2) Klippel W, Warneck P; Geophys Res Lett 5: 177-9
(1978) (3) Zafiriou OC et al; Geophys Res Lett 7: 341-4 (1980) (4) Muir PS; J
Air Waste Manage 41: 32-8 (1991) (5) Igawa M et al; Environ Sci Technol 23:
556-61 (1989) (6) Richards LW et al; Atmos Environ 17: 911-4 (1983) (7) Baez AP
et al; Environ Pollut 79: 271-5 (1993) (8) Adachi A, Kobayashi T; Bull Environ
Contam Toxicol 57: 556-9 (1996)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Effluent Concentrations:
The major contributors to indoor formaldehyde are pressed wood products and
foam insulation containing urea-formaldehyde resins(1). Common indoor
combustion sources include gas burners and ovens, kerosene heaters, and
cigarettes(2). The emissions from cigarette smoking are 2,000 ug/cigarette(3).
Formaldehyde was detected in 3 effluent
streams, two from chemical plants and one from a sewage treatment plant(4).
Effluent from urea and melamine production contained 4% formaldehyde and from phenolic resin
production contained 0.1% formaldehyde(5). Emissions from a wastewater
treatment plant in Los Angeles, CA (Hyperion) was 391 kg/yr(6).
[(1) ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde. Atlanta,
GA: ATSDR, Contract No. 205-93-0606 p. 283 (1998) (2) Matthews TC et al; in
Indoor Air and Human Health. Inc, Gammage RB, Kaye SV, eds. Chelsea, MI: Lewis
Pub (1985) (3) Verschueren K; Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic
Chemicals. 4th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc 1: 1170-4 (2001) (4)
Shakelford WM, Keith LH; Frequency of Organic Compounds Identified in Water.
p.136 USEPA 600/4-76-062 (1976) (5) IARC; Monograph in Some Industrial Chemicals
and Dyestuffs 29: 345-89 (1982) (6) Mayer GJ et al; Water Environ Res 66: 140-4
(1994)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is released to outdoor
air from both natural and industrial sources; combustion processes account
directly or indirectly for most of the formaldehyde entering the atmosphere(1).
Before 1975, automobiles were found to emit about 2.8X10+8 kg of formaldehyde each year(2); emissions have been
reduced since the introduction of the catalytic converter in 1975(3). The concn
of formaldehyde in diesel exhaust was 18
ppm(4). The concn of formaldehyde in the
exhaust of a 1970 Ford Maverick gasoline engine ranged from 11 to 15 ppm(4).
Formaldehyde concns in jet engine
exhaust have been found to range from 0.761 to 1.14 ppm(5). Formaldehyde was released from 1982 consumer
products, e.g., pressed wood products (range, 0.4-21 ug/g product per day); new
clothes not previously washed (range, 0.2-4.9 ug/g product per day); fiberglass
insulation products (range, 0.03-2.3 ug/g product per day); paper plates and
cups (range, 0.03-0.36 ug/g product per day), fabrics (range, 0.01-3 ug/g
product per day), and carpets (range, not detected-0.06 ug/g product per
day)(4). [(1) ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde.
Atlanta, GA: ATSDR, Contract No. 205-93-0606 p. 283 (1998) (2) Kitchens JF et
al; Investigations of selected potential environmental contaminants:
Formaldehyde. Washington DC: USEPA, Off Tox Subst USEPA 560/2-76-009 (1976) (3)
Zweidinger RB at al; Environ Sci Technol 22: 956-62 (1988) (4) Verschueren K;
Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic Chemicals. 4th ed. NY, NY: John Wiley
and Sons Inc, 1: 1170-4 (2001) (5) Miyamoto Y; Aviation, Space, and
Environmental Medicine 57: 1104-8 (1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Atmospheric Concentrations:
RURAL/REMOTE: Ambient levels of formaldehyde are generally <1 ug/cu m in
remote areas; for example, in the unpopulated Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific
Ocean, a mean of 0.5 ug/cu m and a max of 1.0 ug/cu m formaldehyde were measured in outdoor air(1).
The avg and range of concns of formaldehyde in clean marine air are generally
<0.5 ppb and <0.03 to 4 ppb, respectively(2-7). [(1)
IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 242 (1995) (2) Platt V, Perner D; J Geophys Res 85:
7453-8 (1980) (3) Zafiriou OC et al; Geophys Res Lett 7: 341-4 (1980) (4)
Fushimi K, Miyake Y; J Geophys Res 85: 7533-6 (1980) (5) Neitzert V, Seiler W;
Geophys Res Lett 8: 79-82 (1981) (6) Lowe DC et al; Environ Sci Technol 15:
819-23 (1981) (7) Platt U et al; J Geophys Res 84: 6329-35 (1979)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
URBAN/SUBURBAN: Outdoor air concns in urban environments are more variable
and depend on local conditions(1). They are usually 1-20 ug/cu m(1). A major
source of formaldehyde in urban air is
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels; urban air concn in heavy traffic or
during severe inversions can range up to 100 ug/cu m(1). The concn of formaldehyde was measured at various sites in
US(7); 26% of 749 samples were positive(2); 25% of samples had concns >2.7
ppb with a max concn of 27 ppb(2). Six cities in US had avg concns of formaldehyde ranging from 11.3 to 20.6 ppb
with a max concn of 4 ppb(3,4). The daily mean and 1 hr max concn of formaldehyde at 4 cities in New Jersey ranged
from 3.8 to 6.6 ppb and 14 to 20 ppb, respectively(5). Two cities in Southern
California had concns of formaldehyde
ranging from 2 to 48 ppb during photochemical smog episodes(6). From Aug 1979 to
Aug 1980, the mean and range of concns of formaldehyde were 1.28 ppb and 0.11 to 10 ppb
(N=174), respectively, at a moderately polluted area near Julich, Germany(7).
The concn of formaldehyde decreases as
one goes up several hundred feet in altitude(8). [(1) IARC;
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 242 (1995) (2) Brodzinsky R, Singh HB; Volatile
Organic Chemicals in the Atmosphere: An Assessment of Available Data p. 119 SRI
68-02-3452 (1982) (3) Singh HB et al; Atmospheric Measurements of Selected
Hazards Organic Chemicals USEPA 600/13-80-072 (1981) (4) Singh HB et al; Environ
Sci Technol 16: 872-80 (1982) (5) Cleveland WS et al; Atmos Environ 11: 357-60
(1977) (6) Grosjean D; Environ Sci Technol 16: 254-62 (1982) (7) Lowe DC,
Schmidt U; J Geophys Res 88: 10,844-58 (1983) (8) Lowe DC et al; Geophys Res
Lett 7: 825-8 (1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
URBAN/SUBURBAN: The concn of formaldehyde at the Univ of Mexico campus
between Mar-May 1993 ranged from 9.9 to 110.4 ppb(1). Formaldehyde was detected in air from San
Paulo, Brazil (range, 8.5-19.3 ppb; July 1988)(2), Athens, Greece (range, 15-25
ppb in Winter 1991; range, 6-20 ppb in Spring 1991)(3), and Grenoble, France
(range, 2-18 ppb; May 1995)(4). The concn of formaldehyde in air from Rome, Italy ranged
from 8.8-27.7 ppb between Jun-Jul 1994 and from 8.2-17.6 ppb between Jan-Mar
1995(5). Ambient levels of formaldehyde
from 24 samples were collected every day at 6 Southern California locations
between 9/2/88 and 9/25/89; avg concns in Anaheim, Azusa, Burbank, Hawthorne,
Upland, and W. Los Angeles, CA were 5.3 ppb (max, 25.3 ppb), 5.0 ppb (max, 20.7
ppb), 6.0 ppb (max, 26.0 ppb), 6.0 ppb (max, 29.4 ppb), 5.3 ppb (max, 29.2 ppb),
and 6.1 ppb (max, 25.8 ppb), respectively(6). The avg concn of formaldehyde in ambient air from Columbus, OH
(June-July 1989) was 3.8 ug/cu m(7). [(1) Baez AP et al;
Environ Pollut 89: 163-7 (1995) (2) Grosjean D et al; Atmos Environ 24B: 101-6
(1990) (3) Viras LG et al; Fres Environ Bull 1: 73-8 (1992) (4) Ferrari CP et
al; Chemosphere 37: 1587-1601 (1998) (5) Possanzini M et al; Atmos Environ 30:
3757-64 (1996) (6) Grosjean D; Environ Sci Technol 25: 710-15 (1991) (7) Mukund
R et al; Atmos Environ 30: 3457-70 (1996)]**PEER REVIEWED**
INDOOR AIR: The levels of formaldehyde in indoor air are often higher
than those outside(1). The concn in dwellings depend on the sources of formaldehyde that are present, the age of the
source materials, ventilation, temperature, and humidity(1). Major sources of
formaldehyde in some dwellings have been
reported to be off-gassing of urea-formaldehyde foam insulation and particle
board(1). The mean level in conventional homes with no urea-formaldehyde foam insulation were 25-60 ug/cu
m(1). Studies conducted in Denmark, Sweden, Germany, and the US frequently found
indoor formaldehyde levels in excess of
0.12 ppm and in several cases >3.0 ppm(2). In an energy efficient research
house, formaldehyde levels were 65 ppb
without furniture, 182 ppb with furniture, 212 ppb occupied during day, 114 ppb
occupied during night(2). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the
Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland:
WHO 62: 242 (1995) (2) Council on Environmental Quality; Environmental
Quality-1980. p. 185-7 (1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
INDOOR AIR: Many studies have been reported since the late 1970s of formaldehyde levels in mobile homes
(caravans)(1). In 3 states, mobile homes (with a filed complaint) had mean
levels of formaldehyde ranging from 0.1
to 0.88 ppm and up to 3.0 ppm(2). Non-complaint mobile homes in Wisconsin which
were <3 yrs old had a mean concn of formaldehyde of 0.54 ppm; mobile homes >3
yr old had a mean concn of 0.19 ppm(3). Homes in Houston, TX were found to have
concns >0.10 ppm in 19% of those tested(4). The levels of formaldehyde appear to decrease as the mobile
home (and its formaldehyde-based resins)
age, with a half-life of 4 to 5 years(1). In the early 1980s, a mean level of
0.4 ppm and individual measurements as high as several ppm were measured in new
mobile homes. As a result of new standards set in the mid-1980s for building
materials used in mobile homes and voluntary reductions by the manufacturers,
formaldehyde levels in mobile homes are
now typically around 0.1 ppm or less(1). [(1) IARC;
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 242 (1995) (2) National Research Council;
Formaldehyde and Other Aldehydes p. 5-13 USEPA 600/6-82-002 (1982) (3) Lowe DC,
Schmidt U; J Geophys Res 88: 10,844-58 (1983) (4) Stack TH; J Air Pollut Control
Assoc 37: 913-8 (1987)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Food Survey Values:
Formaldehyde occurs naturally in
foods, and foods may be contaminated as a result of fumigation (of e.g. grain),
cooking (as a combustion product) and release from formaldehyde resin-based tableware(1). It has
been used as a bacteriostatic agent in some foods, such as cheese(1). Fruits and
vegetables typically contain 3-60 mg/kg, and meat and fish, 6-20 mg/kg(1).
[(1) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic
Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 243 (1995)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Fish/Seafood Concentrations:
Shellfish typically contain 1-100 mg/kg of formaldehyde(1). [(1) IARC;
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 243 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Milk Concentrations:
Milk and milk products typically contain about 1 mg/kg of formaldehyde(1). [(1) IARC;
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man.
Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 62: 243 (1995)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Other Environmental Concentrations:
LEVEL IN SCHOOL BUILDING WAS 0.3 TO 0.9 PPM DURING SUMMER. SOURCE OF EMISSION
WAS UREA-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN BINDER USED
IN FURNITURE & FLOOR COVERING. AFTER 1 YR, NO FORMALDEHYDE VAPOR WAS RELEASED.
[DEIMEL M; ORG VERUNREINIG UMWELT: ERKENNEN, BEWERTEN,
VERMINDERN, (TAG): 416-27 (1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
PAPER PLATES & CUPS, LADIES DRESSES, MEN'S SHIRTS, 100% COTTON DRAPERY
FABRIC, GIRLS DRESSES (POLYESTER/COTTON), LATEX-BACKED FABRIC, FOAM-BACKED
CARPET & CHILD'S CLOTHES (65% POLYESTER/35% COTTON) ARE ONLY A FEW OF THE 39
SAMPLE TYPES STUDIED WHICH RELEASED FORMALDEHYDE AT RATE OF 1 TO 34,000 UG/SQ
M/DAY. [PICKRELL JA ET AL; INHALATION TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, LOVELACE BIOMEDICAL & ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, PO BOX
5890, ALBUQUERQUE, NM 87185 (FEBRUARY 1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Free formaldehyde is emitted from
formaldehyde resins used in
durable-press cotton when they are heat-cured and stored; in the US, the concn
in 112 fabric samples ranged from 1 to 3517 mg/kg; 18 samples had a free formaldehyde content greater than 750
mg/kg(1). [(1) IARC; Monographs on the Evaluation of the
Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO 29: 358
(1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental Standards &
Regulations:
FIFRA Requirements:
Formaldehyde not more than 1% of
pesticide formulation is exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used
as a preservative for formulation in accordance with good agricultural practice
as inert (or occasionally active) ingredients in pesticide formulations applied
to growing crops only. [40 CFR 180.1001(d) (7/1/2000]**PEER
REVIEWED**
As the federal pesticide law FIFRA directs, EPA is conducting a comprehensive
review of older pesticides to consider their health and environmental effects
and make decisions about their future use. Under this pesticide reregistration
program, EPA examines health and safety data for pesticide active ingredients
initially registered before November 1, 1984, and determines whether they are
eligible for reregistration. In addition, all pesticides must meet the new
safety standard of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Formaldehyde is found on List A, which
contains most food use pesticides and consists of the 194 chemical cases (or 350
individual active ingredients) for which EPA issued registration standards prior
to FIFRA, as amended in 1988. Case No: 0556; Pesticide type: fungicide,
antimicrobial; Registration Standard Date: 05/31/88; Case Status: OPP is
reviewing data from the pesticide's producers regarding its human health and/or
environmental effects, or OPP is determining the pesticide's eligibility for
reregistration and developing the Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED)
document.; Active ingredient (AI): Formaldehyde; AI Status: The producers of the
pesticide has made commitments to conduct the studies and pay the fees required
for reregistration, and are meeting those commitments in a timely manner.
[USEPA/OPP; Status of Pesticides in Registration,
Reregistration and Special Review p.122 (Spring, 1998) EPA 738-R-98-002]**PEER
REVIEWED**
CERCLA Reportable Quantities:
Persons in charge of vessels or facilities are required to notify the
National Response Center (NRC) immediately, when there is a release of this
designated hazardous substance, in an amount equal to or greater than its
reportable quantity of 100 lb or 45.4 kg. The toll free number of the NRC is
(800) 424-8802; In the Washington D.C. metropolitan area (202) 426-2675. The
rule for determining when notification is required is stated in 40 CFR 302.4
(section IV. D.3.b). [40 CFR 302.4 (7/1/2000]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Releases of CERCLA hazardous substances are subject to the release reporting
requirement of CERCLA section 103, codified at 40 CFR part 302, in addition to
the requirements of 40 CFR part 355. Formaldehyde is an extremely hazardous
substance (EHS) subject to reporting requirements when stored in amounts in
excess of its threshold planning quantity (TPQ) of 500 lbs.
[40 CFR 355 (7/1/2000]**PEER REVIEWED**
RCRA Requirements:
U122; As stipulated in 40 CFR 261.33, when formaldehyde, as a commercial chemical product
or manufacturing chemical intermediate or an off-specification commercial
chemical product or a manufacturing chemical intermediate, becomes a waste, it
must be managed according to Federal and/or State hazardous waste regulations.
Also defined as a hazardous waste is any residue, contaminated soil, water, or
other debris resulting from the cleanup of a spill, into water or on dry land,
of this waste. Generators of small quantities of this waste may qualify for
partial exclusion from hazardous waste regulations (40 CFR 261.5).
[40 CFR 261.33 (7/1/2000]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Atmospheric Standards:
This action promulgates standards of performance for equipment leaks of
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in the Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
Industry (SOCMI). The intended effect of these standards is to require all newly
constructed, modified, and reconstructed SOCMI process units to use the best
demonstrated system of continuous emission reduction for equipment leaks of VOC,
considering costs, non air quality health and environmental impact and energy
requirements. Formaldehyde is produced,
as an intermediate or a final product, by process units covered under this
subpart. [40 CFR 60.489 (7/1/2000]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP) generally known or suspected to
cause serious health problems. The Clean Air Act, as amended in 1990, directs
EPA to set standards requiring major sources to sharply reduce routine emissions
of toxic pollutants. EPA is required to establish and phase in specific
performance based standards for all air emission sources that emit one or more
of the listed pollutants. Formaldehyde
is included on this list. [Clean Air Act as amended in 1990,
Sect. 112 (b) (1) Public Law 101-549 Nov. 15, 1990]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Clean Water Act Requirements:
Formaldehyde is designated as a
hazardous substance under section 311(b)(2)(A) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act and further regulated by the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1977 and
1978. These regulations apply to discharges of this substance. This designation
includes any isomers and hydrates, as well as any solutions and mixtures
containing this substance. [40 CFR 116.4 (7/1/2000] **QC
REVIEWED**
Federal Drinking Water Guidelines:
EPA 1000 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State
Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal
Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
State Drinking Water Standards:
(CA) CALIFORNIA 30 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water;
Federal-State Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State
and Federal Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
State Drinking Water Guidelines:
(CA) CALIFORNIA 30 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water;
Federal-State Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State
and Federal Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
(FL) FLORIDA 600 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State
Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal
Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
(ME) MAINE 30 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State
Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal
Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
(MN) MINNESOTA 1000 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water;
Federal-State Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State
and Federal Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
(NJ) NEW JERSEY 100 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water;
Federal-State Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State
and Federal Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
(WI) WISCONSIN 1000 ug/l [USEPA/Office of Water;
Federal-State Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State
and Federal Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC
REVIEWED**
FDA Requirements:
Formaldehyde is an indirect food
additive for use only as a component of adhesives. [21 CFR
175.105 (4/1/2000]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is a food additive
permitted in feed and drinking water of animals. [21 CFR
573.460 (4/1/2000]**PEER REVIEWED**
Allowable Tolerances:
Formaldehyde not more than 1% of
pesticide formulation is exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used
as a preservative for formulation in accordance with good agricultural practice
as inert (or occasionally active) ingredients in pesticide formulations applied
to growing crops only. [40 CFR 180.1001(d) (7/1/2000]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Chemical/Physical Properties:
Molecular Formula:
C-H2-O **PEER REVIEWED**
Molecular Weight:
30.03 [Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An
Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck
and Co., Inc., 1996. 717]**PEER REVIEWED**
Color/Form:
Clear, water-white, very slightly acid, gas or liquid.
[Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996.
1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde solution is a clear,
colorless or nearly colorless liquid ... [Osol, A. (ed.).
Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences. 16th ed. Easton, Pennsylvania: Mack
Publishing Co., 1980. 1110]**PEER REVIEWED**
Nearly colorless gas [Note: Often used in an aqueous solution].
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.
148]**PEER REVIEWED**
Odor:
Pungent, suffocating odor. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to
Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1997. 148]**PEER REVIEWED**
Boiling Point:
-19.5 deg C [Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An
Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck
and Co., Inc., 1996. 717]**PEER REVIEWED**
Melting Point:
-92 deg C [Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An
Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck
and Co., Inc., 1996. 717]**PEER REVIEWED**
Corrosivity:
Aqueous formaldehyde is corrosive to
carbon steel, but formaldehyde in vapor
phase is not. [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
1978-1984.,p. V11 239 (1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Critical Temperature & Pressure:
Critical temperature: 137.2-141.2 deg C; critical pressure: 6.784-6.637 MPa
(to convert MPa to atm, divide by 0.101) [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 231 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Density/Specific Gravity:
1.067 (Air= 1) [Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An
Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck
and Co., Inc., 1996. 717]**PEER REVIEWED**
Dissociation Constants:
pKa = 13.27 @ 25 deg C [Serjeant, E.P., Dempsey B.;
Ionisation Constants of Organic Acids in Aqueous Solution. International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). IUPACChemical Data Series No. 23, 1979.
New York, New York: Pergamon Press, Inc. 9]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Heat of Combustion:
570.7 kJ/mol (gas) [Lide, DR (ed.). CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics. 81st Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2000,p.
5-89]**PEER REVIEWED**
Heat of Vaporization:
5,917.9 gcal/gmole (to convert to J/g mole, multiply by 4.184)
[Weast, R.C. (ed.) Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 67th
ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1986-87.,p. C-671]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient:
log Kow= 0.35 [Hansch, C., Leo, A., D. Hoekman. Exploring
QSAR - Hydrophobic, Electronic, and Steric Constants. Washington, DC: American
Chemical Society., 1995. 3]**PEER REVIEWED**
pH:
pH: 2.8 to 4.0 /Formaldehyde soln/
[Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of
Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc.,
1996. 717]**PEER REVIEWED**
Solubilities:
Soluble in alcohol, ether, acetone [Lide, DR (ed.). CRC
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 81st Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL
2000,p. 3-166]**PEER REVIEWED**
SOL IN BENZENE [Lide, D.R. (ed). CRC Handbook of Chemistry
and Physics. 72nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1991-1992.,p. 3-248]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In water, 4.00X10+5 mg/l @ 20 deg C [Pickrell JA et al;
Environ Sci Technol 17: 753-7 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Index of refraction: 1.3746 at 20 deg C/D /Formaldehyde soln/
[Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of
Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc.,
1996. 717]**PEER REVIEWED**
IR: 2538 (Sadtler Research Laboratories Prism Collection)
[Lide, D.R., G.W.A. Milne (eds.). Handbook of Data on Organic
Compounds. Volume I. 3rd ed. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton ,FL. 1994.,p. V3
2808]**PEER REVIEWED**
UV: 3-1 (Organic Electronic Spectral Data, Phillips et al, John Wiley &
Sons, New York) [Lide, D.R., G.W.A. Milne (eds.). Handbook of
Data on Organic Compounds. Volume I. 3rd ed. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton ,FL.
1994.,p. V3 2808]**PEER REVIEWED**
MS: 37883 (National Institute of Standards and Technology); 74 (Atlas of Mass
Spectral Data, John Wiley and Sons, NY) [Lide, D.R., G.W.A.
Milne (eds.). Handbook of Data on Organic Compounds. Volume I. 3rd ed. CRC
Press, Inc. Boca Raton ,FL. 1994.,p. V3 2808]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Vapor Pressure:
3,890 mm Hg @ 25 deg C [Boublik, T., Fried, V., and Hala,
E., The Vapour Pressures of Pure Substances. Second Revised Edition. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, 1984. 44]**PEER REVIEWED**
Other Chemical/Physical Properties:
Freezing point: -117 deg C /Formaldehyde, 37% uninhibited/
[Flick, E.W. (ed.). Industrial Solvents Handbook 4 th ed.
Noyes Data Corporation., Park Ridge, NJ., 1991. 511]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde solution is a clear,
colorless or nearly colorless liquid having a pungent, irritating odor. /Formaldehyde soln/ [Osol,
A. (ed.). Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences. 16th ed. Easton, Pennsylvania:
Mack Publishing Co., 1980. 1110]**PEER REVIEWED**
Specified gravity: 0.816 g at 20/20 deg C /Formaldehyde, 37% uninhibited/
[Flick, E.W. (ed.). Industrial Solvents Handbook 4 th ed.
Noyes Data Corporation., Park Ridge, NJ., 1991. 511]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Vapor pressure: 1 mm Hg /Formalin/
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.
148]**PEER REVIEWED**
In the presence of air and moisture, polymerization readily takes place in
concentrated solutions at room temperatures to form paraformaldehyde, a solid
mixture of linear polyoxymethylene glycols containing 90-99% formaldehyde. [USEPA;
Locating and Estimating Air Emissions From Sources of Formaldehyde.
USEPA-450/4-84-007E (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Boiling point: - 19.1 deg C /Formaldehyde 37% uninhibited/
[Flick, E.W. (ed.). Industrial Solvents Handbook 4 th ed.
Noyes Data Corporation., Park Ridge, NJ., 1991. 511]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In the presence of air, formaldehyde
is oxidized to formic acid. [Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The
Pesticide Manual - World Compendium, 11 th ed., British Crop Protection Council,
Surrey, England 1997 622]**PEER REVIEWED**
Henry's Law constant = 3.37X10-7 atm cu m/mol @ 25 deg C
[Betterton EA, Hoffmann MR; Environ Sci Technol 22: 1415-8
(1988)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hydroxyl radical reaction rate constant = 9.37X10-12 cu cm/molecule-sec @ 25
deg C [Kwok ESC, Atkinson R; Estimation of hydroxyl radical
reaction rate constants for gas-phase organic compounds using a
structure-reactivity relationship: an update. Riverside, CA: Univ CA, Statewide
Air Pollut Res Ctr. CMA Contract No. ARC-8.0-OR (1994)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Chemical Safety & Handling:
DOT Emergency Guidelines:
Fire or explosion: Flammable/combustible materials. May be ignited by heat,
sparks or flames. Vapors may form explosive mixtures with air. Vapors may travel
to source of ignition and flash back. Most vapors are heavier than air. They
will spread along ground and collect in low or confined areas (sewers,
basements, tanks). Vapor explosion hazard indoors, outdoors or in sewers. Those
substances desigmnated with a "P" may polymerize explosively when heated or
involved in a fire. Runoff to sewer may create fire or explosion hazard.
Containers may explode when heated. Many liquids are lighter than water. /Formaldehyde, solution, flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions (Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Health: May cause toxic effects if inhaled or ingested/swallowed. Contact
with substance may cause severe burns to skin and eyes. Fire will produce
irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases. Vapors may cause dizziness or
suffocation. Runoff from fire control or dilution water may cause pollution.
/Formaldehyde, solution, flammable;
Formaldehyde, solutions (Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Public safety: CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number ... . Isolate spill
or leak area immediately for at least 50 to 100 meters (160 to 330 feet) in all
directions. Keep unauthorized personnel away. Stay upwind. Keep out of low
areas. Ventilate closed spaces before entering. /Formaldehyde, solution, flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions (Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Protective clothing: Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA). Wear chemical protective clothing which is specifically
recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection.
Structural firefighters' protective clothing is recommended for fire situations
only; it is not effective in spill situations. /Formaldehyde, solution, flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions (Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Evacuation: ... Fire: If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire,
ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial
evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions. /Formaldehyde, solution, flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions (Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Fire: Some of these materials may react violently with water. Small fires:
Dry chemical, CO2, water spray or alcohol-resistant foam. Large fires: Water
spray, fog or alcohol-resistant foam. Move containers from fire area if you can
do it without risk. Dike fire control water for later disposal; do not scatter
the material. Do not get water inside containers. Fire involving tanks or
car/trailer loads: Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders
or monitor nozzles. Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well
after fire is out. Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting
safety devices or discoloration of tank. ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in
fire. For massive fire, use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles; if this is
impossible, withdraw from area and let fire burn. /Formaldehyde, solution, flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions (Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Spill or Leak: Fully encapsulating, vapor protective clothing should be worn
for spills and leaks with no fire. ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking,
flares, sparks or flames in immediate area). All equipment used when handling
the product must be grounded. Do not touch or walk through spilled material.
Stop leak if you can do it without risk. Prevent entry into waterways, sewers,
basements or confined areas. A vapor suppressing foam may be used to reduce
vapors. Absorb with earth, sand or other non-combustible material and transfer
to containers (except for Hydrazine). Use clean non-sparking tools to collect
absorbed material. Large spills: Dike far ahead of liquid spill for later
disposal. Water spray may reduce vapor; but may not prevent ignition in closed
spaces. /Formaldehyde, solution,
flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions
(Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
First aid: Move victim to fresh air. Call 911 or emergency medical service.
Apply artificial respiration if victim is not breathing. Do not use
mouth-to-mouth method if victim ingested or inhaled the substance; induce
artificial respiration with the aid of a pocket mask equipped with a one-way
valve or other proper respiratory medical device. Administer oxygen if breathing
is difficult. Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. In case of
contact with substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at
least 20 minutes. Keep victim warm and quiet. Effects of exposure (inhalation,
ingestion or skin contact) to substance may be delayed. Ensure that medical
personnel are aware of the material(s) involved, and take precautions to protect
themselves. /Formaldehyde, solution,
flammable; Formaldehyde, solutions
(Formalin); Formaldehyde, solutions, (Formalin) (corrosive)/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 2000 Emergency Response
Guidebook. RSPA P 5800.8 Edition. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 2000,p. G-132]**QC REVIEWED**
Odor Threshold:
0.5 to 1.0 ppm [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem
Spills: Formaldehyde p.1 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Detection: media= water: 4.99x10+1 ppm /Chemically pure/
[Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.). Compilation of Odor and Taste
Threshold Values Data. ASTM Data Series DS 48A (Committee E-18). Philadelphia,
PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978. 95]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Detection: media= water: 2.50x10+1 ppm /Purity not specified/
[Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.). Compilation of Odor and Taste
Threshold Values Data. ASTM Data Series DS 48A (Committee E-18). Philadelphia,
PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978. 95]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Recognition: media= air: 1.00 ppm /Chemically pure/
[Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.). Compilation of Odor and Taste
Threshold Values Data. ASTM Data Series DS 48A (Committee E-18). Philadelphia,
PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978. 95]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Odor low: 1.4700 mg/cu m; Odor high: 73.5000 mg/cu m [Ruth
JH; Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 47: A-142-51 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Skin, Eye and Respiratory Irritations:
Contact with the skin causes irritation, tanning effect, and allergic
sensitization. Contact with eyes causes irritation, itching, & lacrimation.
... [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills:
Formaldehyde p.2 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde vapor is very irritating
to the mucous membranes and toxic to animals, including man.
[Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World
Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British Crop Protection Council, 1994.
525]**PEER REVIEWED**
Fire Potential:
Flammable [Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual -
World Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British Crop Protection Council,
1994. 524]**PEER REVIEWED**
Flammable liquid when exposed to heat or flame; can react vigorously with
oxidizers. ... The gas is a more dangerous fire hazard than the vapor.
[Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996.
1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
NFPA Hazard Classification:
Health: 3. 3= Materials that, on short exposure, could cause serious
temporary or residual injury, including those requiring protection from all
bodily contact. Fire fighters may enter the area only if they are protected from
all contact with the material. Full protective clothing, including
self-contained breathing apparatus, coat, pants, gloves, boots, and bands around
legs, arms, and waist, should be provided. No skin surface should be exposed.
/Formaldehyde gas/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Flammability: 4. 4= This degree includes flammable gases, pyrophoric liquids,
and Class IA flammable liquids. The preferred method of fire attack is to stop
the flow of material or to protect exposures while allowing the fire to burn
itself out. /Formaldehyde gas/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Reactivity: 0. 0= This degree includes materials that are normally stable,
even under fire exposure conditions, and that do not react with water. Normal
fire fighting procedures may be used. /Formaldehyde gas/ [Fire
Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire
Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER REVIEWED**
Health: 3. 3= Materials that, on short exposure, could cause serious
temporary or residual injury, including those requiring protection from all
bodily contact. Fire fighters may enter the area only if they are protected from
all contact with the material. Full protective clothing, including
self-contained breathing apparatus, coat, pants, gloves, boots, and bands around
legs, arms, and waist, should be provided. No skin surface should be exposed.
/Formaldehyde 37% methanol-free/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Flammability: 2. 2= This degree includes materials that must be moderately
heated before ignition will occur and includes Class II and IIIA combustible
liquids and solids and semi-solids that readily give off ignitible vapors. Water
spray may be used to extinguish fires in these materials because the materials
can be cooled below their flash points. /Formaldehyde 37% methanol-free/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Reactivity: 0. 0= This degree includes materials that are normally stable,
even under fire exposure conditions, and that do not react with water. Normal
fire fighting procedures may be used. /Formaldehyde 37% methanol-free/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Health: 3. 3= Materials that, on short exposure, could cause serious
temporary or residual injury, including those requiring protection from all
bodily contact. Fire fighters may enter the area only if they are protected from
all contact with the material. Full protective clothing, including
self-contained breathing apparatus, coat, pants, gloves, boots, and bands around
legs, arms, and waist, should be provided. No skin surface should be exposed.
/Formaldehyde 37%, 15% methanol/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Flammability: 2. 2= This degree includes materials that must be moderately
heated before ignition will occur and includes Class II and IIIA combustible
liquids and solids and semi-solids that readily give off ignitible vapors. Water
spray may be used to extinguish fires in these materials because the materials
can be cooled below their flash points. /Formaldehyde 37%, 15% methanol/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Reactivity: 0. 0= This degree includes materials that are normally stable,
even under fire exposure conditions, and that do not react with water. Normal
fire fighting procedures may be used. /Formaldehyde 37%, 15% methanol/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Flammable Limits:
Lower flammable limit: 7.0% by volume; Upper flammable limit: 73% by volume
/Formaldehyde gas/
[Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Flash Point:
83 deg C, closed cup, 37% aqueous soln- methanol free; 50 deg C, closed cup,
aqueous soln with 15% methanol [American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit
Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II, III. Cincinnati,
OH: ACGIH, 1991. 664]**PEER REVIEWED**
Autoignition Temperature:
795 DEG F; (424 DEG C) /FORMALDEHYDE
GAS/ [Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed.
Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 325-54]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Fire Fighting Procedures:
Use water spray, dry chemical, alcohol foam, or carbon dioxide. Use water to
keep fire exposed containers cool. If leak or spill has not ignited, use water
spray to disperse vapors, and to protect men attempting to stop leak. Water
spray may be used to flush spills away from exposures and to dilute spills to
nonflammable mixtures. [Prager, J.C. Environmental
Contaminant Reference Databook Volume 1. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1995. 706]**PEER REVIEWED**
Approach fire from upwind to avoid hazardous vapors and toxic decomposition
products. Use water spray, dry chemical, "alcohol resistant" foam, or carbon
dioxide. [Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12
ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1997.,p. 49-72]**PEER
REVIEWED**
If material is on fire or involved in a fire: Do not extinguish fire unless
flow can be stopped. Use water in flooding quantities as fog. Solid streams of
water may be ineffective. Cool all affected containers with flooding quantities
of water. Apply water from as far a distance as possible. Use "alcohol" foam,
dry chemical or carbon dioxide. [Association of American
Railroads. Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation.
Washington, DC: Association of American Railroads, Bureau of Explosives, 1994.
516]**PEER REVIEWED**
To fight fire, stop flow of gas (for pure form); alcohol foam for 37%
methanol-free form. [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties
of Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Firefighting Hazards:
Solutions of formaldehyde in water
are considered combustible as the flammable vapors escape and form explosive
mixtures with air over a wide range. [Fire Protection Guide
to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association,
1997.,p. 49-72]**PEER REVIEWED**
Explosive Limits & Potential:
EXPLOSIVE LIMITS: LOWER 7.0%; UPPER 73.0% [Lewis, R.J.
Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New
York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996. 1688]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A moderate explosion hazard when exposed to heat or flame. ... When aqueous
formaldehyde solutions are heated above
their flash points, a potential for an explosion hazard exists.
[Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996.
1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazardous Reactivities & Incompatibilities:
(Amines) exothermic reaction, (AZO cmpd) exothermic reaction giving off
nitrogen gas, (caustics) heat generation and violent polymerization,
(dithiocarbamates) formation of flammable gasses and toxic fumes, formation of
carbon disulfide may result, (alkali and alkaline earth metals) heat generation
and formation of flammable hydrogen gas, (nitrides) heat generation, formation
of flammable ammonia gas and violent polymerization, (nitro compd) heat
generation, (unsaturated aliphatics and sulfides) heat generation, (organic
peroxides) violent reaction, (oxidizing agents) heat generation, fire, and
decomposition, (reducing agents) heat generation and formation of flammable
gasses. /From table/ [USEPA/ORD; A Method for Determining the
Compatibility of Haz Wastes (1980) EPA-600/2-80-076 as cited in Environment
Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Formaldehyde p.84-87 (1985)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Interaction of nitromethane & formaldehyde in presence of alkali gives ...
2-nitroethanol, ... di- & tri-condensation products. After removal of
2-nitroethanol by vacuum distillation, the residue must be cooled before
admitting air into the system to prevent flash explosion or violent fume-off.
[Bretherick, L. Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards. 4th
ed. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 1990 164]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde ... react violently with
90% performic acid. [Bretherick, L. Handbook of Reactive
Chemical Hazards. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 1990
153]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde and a number of carbonyl
cmpd bearing electronegative substituents in the alpha position add to isocyanic
acid at temp of -70 deg to 0 deg C to form alpha-hydroxy isocyanates. At higher
temp, these isocyanates polymerize and sometimes do so with explosive violence.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V13 800
(1981)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Reactions with peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, and performic acid, cause
explosions. [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem
Spills: Formaldehyde p.84-7 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
With magnesium carbonate, explosion is due to the pressure of carbon dioxide
formed. [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Probem Spills:
Formaldehyde p.84-7 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Strong oxidizers, alkalis & acids; phenols; urea [Note: Pure formaldehyde has a tendency to polymerize.
Reacts with HCl to form bis-chloromethyl ether]. [NIOSH.
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. 148]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Highly chemically reactive. ... Sensitive to light. Powerful reducing agent.
[Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World
Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British Crop Protection Council, 1994.
524]**PEER REVIEWED**
Reacts with sodium hydroxide to yield formic acid and hydrogen. Reacts with
/nitrogen oxides/ at about 180 deg; the reaction becomes explosive.
[Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996.
1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazardous Decomposition:
Uncatalyzed decomposition is very slow below 300 deg C; extrapolation of
kinetic data to 400 deg C indicates that the rate of decomposition is about
0.44%/min at 101 kPa (1 atm). The main products are carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. Metals such as platinium, copper, chromia, and alumina also catalyze
the formation of methanol, methylformate, formic acid, carbon dioxide, and
methane. [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.
3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 233
(1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Decomposition products: carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II, III. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1991. 664]**PEER
REVIEWED**
When heated to decomposition it emits acrid smoke and fumes.
[Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996.
1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazardous Polymerization:
POLYMERIZES EASILY [Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index -
Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs and Biologicals. Rahway, NJ: Merck and Co.,
Inc., 1989. 662]**PEER REVIEWED**
Anhydrous, monomeric formaldehyde ...
/a dry gas/ is relatively stable at 80-100 deg C but slowly polymerizes at lower
temp. Traces of polar impurities such as acids, alkalies, and water qreatly
accelerate the polymerization. When liquid formaldehyde is warmed to room temp in a
sealed ampule, it polymerizes rapidly with the evolution of heat (63 kJ/mol or
15.05 kcal/mol). [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
1978-1984.,p. V11 233 (1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... /Polymerization can be/ inhibited by addition of methanol or of
stabilizers such as hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, methyl and ethyl celluloses
or isophthalobisguanamine. [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
1978-1984.,p. V11 244 (1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In the presence of small amts of water, formaldehyde gas may slowly trimerize to
metaformaldehyde. [Health and Safety Executive Monograph:
Formaldehyde p.2 (1981)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... Formaldehyde and (AZO cmpd) yield
exothermic reaction giving off nitrogen gas, (caustics) heat generation and
violent polymerization. ... Formaldehyde
and (Nitrides) cause heat generation, formation of flammable ammonia gases and
violent polymerization. /From table/ [USEPA/ORD; A Method for
Determining the Compatability of Haz Wastes (1980) EPA-600/ 2-80-076 as cited in
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Formaldehyde p.84-87
(1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Polymerized in aqueous solution to trioxymethylene (retarded by the addition
of methanol). [Tomlin, C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual -
World Compendium. 10th ed. Surrey, UK: The British Crop Protection Council,
1994. 524]**PEER REVIEWED**
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health:
20 ppm; NIOSH considers formaldehyde
to be a potential occupational carcinogen. [NIOSH. NIOSH
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. 148]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Protective Equipment & Clothing:
Respirator selection: (50 ppm) Chemical cartridge respirator with organic
vapor cartridge with full facepiece; Gas mask with organic vapor canister
(chin-style or front- or back-mounted canister); supplied air respirator with
full facepiece, helmet, or hood; self-contained breathing apparatus with full
facepiece; (100 ppm): Type C supplied-air respirator operated in pressure-demand
or other positive pressure or continuous-flow mode; (escape): Gas mask with
organic vapor canister (chin-style or front- or back-mounted canister);
self-contained breathing apparatus. [Sittig, M. Handbook of
Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 1985. 2nd ed. Park Ridge, NJ:
Noyes Data Corporation, 1985. 464]**PEER REVIEWED**
Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye contact.
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.
149]**PEER REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator selection. Condition: At concentrations above
the NIOSH REL, or where there is no REL, at any detectable concentration:
Respirator Class(es): Any self-contained breathing apparatus that has a full
facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other positive pressure mode.
Any supplied-air respirator that has a full facepiece and is operated in
pressure-demand or other positive pressure mode in combination with an auxiliary
self-contained breathing apparatus operated in pressure-demand or other positive
pressure mode. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical
Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1997. 149]**PEER REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator selection. Condition: Escape from suddenly
occurring respiratory hazards: Respirator Class(es): Any air-purifying,
full-facepiece respirator (gas mask) with a chin-style, front- or back-mounted
canister providing protection against the compound of concern. Any appropriate
escape-type, self-contained breathing apparatus. [NIOSH.
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. 149]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": ... Dispensers of liq detergent /should be
available./ ... Safety pipettes should be used for all pipetting. ... In animal
laboratory, personnel should ... wear protective suits (preferably disposable,
one-piece & close-fitting at ankles & wrists), gloves, hair covering
& overshoes. ... In chemical laboratory, gloves & gowns should always be
worn ... however, gloves should not be assumed to provide full protection.
Carefully fitted masks or respirators may be necessary when working with
particulates or gases, & disposable plastic aprons might provide addnl
protection. ... Gowns ... /should be/ of distinctive color, this is a reminder
that they are not to be worn outside the laboratory. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 8]**PEER REVIEWED**
Preventive Measures:
Formaldehyde is preferably handled in
a closed vessels, and if this is impossible the vapors should be removed at the
level at which they are evolved. Ventilation must be provided; exposure to
concentration above maximum allowed in factory (escape, splashing of liquid,
etc) necessitates the workmen wearing complete protective equipment
(closed-circuit breathing apparatus, goggles, gloves, etc). Leather and rubber
are materials suitable for protection against vapors liquids containing formaldehyde, and clothes, and other articles
contaminated by formaldehyde should be
copiously washed with water. [Prager, J.C. Environmental
Contaminant Reference Databook Volume 1. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1995.,p. 706-7]**PEER REVIEWED**
PERSONNEL IN CONTACT WITH SOLID MATERIAL CONTAINING FREE FORMALDEHYDE OR WITH CONCN SOLUTIONS OF FORMALDEHYDE, OR EXPOSED TO FORMALDEHYDE VAPORS, SHOULD BE PROTECTED BY
SUITABLE EXHAUST OR GENERAL VENTILATION & BE SUPPLIED WITH HAND & ARM
PROTECTION & RESP PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT; BARRIER CREAMS MAY ALSO PROVIDE
VALUABLE SKIN PROTECTION. [International Labour Office.
Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva,
Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1983. 915]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Contact lenses should not be worn when working with this chemical.
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.
149]**PEER REVIEWED**
SRP: The scientific literature for the use of contact lenses in industry is
conflicting. The benefit or detrimental effects of wearing contact lenses depend
not only upon the substance, but also on factors including the form of the
substance, characteristics and duration of the exposure, the uses of other eye
protection equipment, and the hygiene of the lenses. However, there may be
individual substances whose irritating or corrosive properties are such that the
wearing of contact lenses would be harmful to the eye. In those specific cases,
contact lenses should not be worn. In any event, the usual eye protection
equipment should be worn even when contact lenses are in place.
**PEER REVIEWED**
If material is not on fire and not involved in a fire: Keep sparks, flames,
and other sources of ignition away. Keep material out of water sources and
sewers. Build dikes to contain flow as necessary. Use water spray to disperse
vapors and dilute standing pools of liquid. [Association of
American Railroads. Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface
Transportation. Washington, DC: Association of American Railroads, Bureau of
Explosives, 1994. 516]**PEER REVIEWED**
Personnel protection: Avoid breathing vapors. Keep upwind. ... Do not handle
broken packages unless wearing appropriate personal protective equipment. Wash
away any material which may have contacted the body with copious amounts of
water or soap and water. [Association of American Railroads.
Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation. Washington,
DC: Association of American Railroads, Bureau of Explosives, 1994. 516]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Smoking, drinking, eating, storage of food or
of food & beverage containers or utensils, & the application of
cosmetics should be prohibited in any laboratory. All personnel should remove
gloves, if worn, after completion of procedures in which carcinogens have been
used. They should ... wash ... hands, preferably using dispensers of liq
detergent, & rinse ... thoroughly. Consideration should be given to
appropriate methods for cleaning the skin, depending on nature of the
contaminant. No standard procedure can be recommended, but the use of organic
solvents should be avoided. Safety pipettes should be used for all pipetting.
/Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland,
G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W.
Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of
Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency
for Research on Cancer, 1979. 8]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": In animal laboratory, personnel should remove
their outdoor clothes & wear protective suits (preferably disposable,
one-piece & close-fitting at ankles & wrists), gloves, hair covering
& overshoes. ... clothing should be changed daily but ... discarded
immediately if obvious contamination occurs ... /also,/ workers should shower
immediately. In chemical laboratory, gloves & gowns should always be worn
... however, gloves should not be assumed to provide full protection. Carefully
fitted masks or respirators may be necessary when working with particulates or
gases, & disposable plastic aprons might provide addnl protection. If gowns
are of distinctive color, this is a reminder that they should not be worn
outside of lab. /Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H.
Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L.
Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the
Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon,
France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1979. 8]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": ... Operations connected with synth &
purification ... should be carried out under well-ventilated hood. Analytical
procedures ... should be carried out with care & vapors evolved during ...
procedures should be removed. ... Expert advice should be obtained before
existing fume cupboards are used ... & when new fume cupboards are
installed. It is desirable that there be means for decreasing the rate of air
extraction, so that carcinogenic powders can be handled without ... powder being
blown around the hood. Glove boxes should be kept under negative air pressure.
Air changes should be adequate, so that concn of vapors of volatile carcinogens
will not occur. /Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H.
Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L.
Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the
Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon,
France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1979. 8]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Vertical laminar-flow biological safety
cabinets may be used for containment of in vitro procedures ... provided that
the exhaust air flow is sufficient to provide an inward air flow at the face
opening of the cabinet, & contaminated air plenums that are under positive
pressure are leak-tight. Horizontal laminar-flow hoods or safety cabinets, where
filtered air is blown across the working area towards the operator, should never
be used ... Each cabinet or fume cupboard to be used ... should be tested before
work is begun (eg, with fume bomb) & label fixed to it, giving date of test
& avg air-flow measured. This test should be repeated periodically &
after any structural changes. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 9]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Principles that apply to chem or biochem lab
also apply to microbiological & cell-culture labs ... Special consideration
should be given to route of admin. ... Safest method of administering volatile
carcinogen is by injection of a soln. Admin by topical application, gavage, or
intratracheal instillation should be performed under hood. If chem will be
exhaled, animals should be kept under hood during this period. Inhalation
exposure requires special equipment. ... unless specifically required, routes of
admin other than in the diet should be used. Mixing of carcinogen in diet should
be carried out in sealed mixers under fume hood, from which the exhaust is
fitted with an efficient particulate filter. Techniques for cleaning mixer &
hood should be devised before expt begun. When mixing diets, special protective
clothing &, possibly, respirators may be required. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 9]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": When ... admin in diet or applied to skin,
animals should be kept in cages with solid bottoms & sides & fitted with
a filter top. When volatile carcinogens are given, filter tops should not be
used. Cages which have been used to house animals that received carcinogens
should be decontaminated. Cage-cleaning facilities should be installed in area
in which carcinogens are being used, to avoid moving of ... contaminated
/cages/. It is difficult to ensure that cages are decontaminated, &
monitoring methods are necessary. Situations may exist in which the use of
disposable cages should be recommended, depending on type & amt of
carcinogen & efficiency with which it can be removed. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 10]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": To eliminate risk that ... contamination in
lab could build up during conduct of expt, periodic checks should be carried out
on lab atmospheres, surfaces, such as walls, floors & benches, & ...
interior of fume hoods & airducts. As well as regular monitoring, check must
be carried out after cleaning-up of spillage. Sensitive methods are required
when testing lab atmospheres. ... Methods ... should ... where possible, be
simple & sensitive. /Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano,
R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B.
Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the
Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon,
France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1979. 10]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Rooms in which obvious contamination has
occurred, such as spillage, should be decontaminated by lab personnel engaged in
expt. Design of expt should ... avoid contamination of permanent equipment. ...
Procedures should ensure that maintenance workers are not exposed to
carcinogens. ... Particular care should be taken to avoid contamination of
drains or ventilation ducts. In cleaning labs, procedures should be used which
do not produce aerosols or dispersal of dust, ie, wet mop or vacuum cleaner
equipped with high-efficiency particulate filter on exhaust, which are avail
commercially, should be used. Sweeping, brushing & use of dry dusters or
mops should be prohibited. Grossly contaminated cleaning materials should not be
re-used ... If gowns or towels are contaminated, they should not be sent to
laundry, but ... decontaminated or burnt, to avoid any hazard to laundry
personnel. /Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H. Bartsch,
E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis,
and W. Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of
Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency
for Research on Cancer, 1979. 10]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Doors leading into areas where carcinogens are
used ... should be marked distinctively with appropriate labels. Access ...
limited to persons involved in expt. ... A prominently displayed notice should
give the name of the Scientific Investigator or other person who can advise in
an emergency & who can inform others (such as firemen) on the handling of
carcinogenic substances. /Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano,
R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B.
Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the
Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon,
France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1979. 11]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The following engineering controls are recommended to minimize formaldehyde exposure: 1. Local exhaust
ventilation should be installed over work stations using formalin or specimens preserved in formalin. 2. Small quantities of formaldehyde should be purchased in plastic
containers for ease of handling & safety. 3. Traps should be placed in floor
drains. 4. Spill-absorbent bags should be available for emergencies. 5.
Engineering controls in hemodialysis units should include (a) isolating the main
system from personnel & patients in case of inadvertent spills or (b)
disconnecting the dialyzers before the sterilization process is completed. Also,
formaldehyde vapors should be prevented
from entering the room from the drains serving the main system & the
dialysis consoles. The air should be regularly monitored for formaldehyde, & in-service education
should be conducted periodically on the effects of formaldehyde. [Ellenhorn,
M.J., S. Schonwald, G. Ordog, J. Wasserberger. Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology:
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and
Wilkins, 1997. 1216]**PEER REVIEWED**
Stability/Shelf Life:
On standing, especially in the cold, may become cloudy, and on exposure to
very low temperature ppt of trioxymethylene formed; in air it slowly oxidizes to
formic acid /40% solution/. [Prager, J.C. Environmental
Contaminant Reference Databook Volume 1. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1995. 706]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde gas is stable in the
absence of water. [Health and Safety Executive Monograph:
Formaldehyde #2 p.2 (1981)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Shipment Methods and Regulations:
No person may /transport,/ offer or accept a hazardous material for
transportation in commerce unless that person is registered in conformance ...
and the hazardous material is properly classed, described, packaged, marked,
labeled, and in condition for shipment as required or authorized by ... /the
hazardous materials regulations (49 CFR 171-177)./ [49 CFR
171.2 (7/1/2000)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) Dangerous Goods
Regulations are published by the IATA Dangerous Goods Board pursuant to IATA
Resolutions 618 and 619 and constitute a manual of industry carrier regulations
to be followed by all IATA Member airlines when transporting hazardous
materials. [IATA. Dangerous Goods Regulations. 42nd Ed.
Montreal, Canada and Geneva, Switzerland: International Air Transport
Association, Dangerous Goods Regulations, 2001. 165]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code lays down basic principles
for transporting hazardous chemicals. Detailed recommendations for individual
substances and a number of recommendations for good practice are included in the
classes dealing with such substances. A general index of technical names has
also been compiled. This index should always be consulted when attempting to
locate the appropriate procedures to be used when shipping any substance or
article. [IMDG; International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code;
International Maritime Organization p.3347, 8176-1 (1998)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Storage Conditions:
PROTECT AGAINST PHYSICAL DAMAGE. SEPARATE FROM OXIDIZING & ALKALINE
MATERIALS. INDOOR STORAGE SHOULD BE IN AREAS HAVING FLOORS PITCHED TOWARD
TRAPPED DRAIN OR IN CURBED RETENTION AREAS. MINIMUM STORAGE TEMP TO PREVENT
POLYMERIZATION RANGE FROM 83 DEG F FOR 37% FORMALDEHYDE CONTAINING 0.05% METHYL ALCOHOL
TO 29 DEG F FOR FORMALDEHYDE CONTAINING
15% METHYL ALCOHOL. [National Fire Protection Association.
Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials. 9th ed. Boston, MA: National Fire
Protection Association, 1986.,p. 49-51]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formalin is ... supplied unstabilized
or methanol-stabilized. The latter may be stored at room temp without
precipitation of solid formaldehyde
polymers because it contains 5-10% of methyl alcohol. The uninhibited type must
be maintained at a temp of at least 32 deg C to prevent the separation of solid
formaldehyde polymers.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V2 443
(1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Inhibition by methanol decreases the minimum storage temp by about 2.3 deg C
per wt % methanol for unstabilized soln & about 1.3 deg C per wt % methanol
for stabilized solutions. Materials of construction preferred for storage
vessels are 304, 316, and 347-type stainless steels or lined carbon steels.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 244
(1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Storage site should be as close as practical
to lab in which carcinogens are to be used, so that only small quantities
required for ... expt need to be carried. Carcinogens should be kept in only one
section of cupboard, an explosion-proof refrigerator or freezer (depending on
chemicophysical properties ...) that bears appropriate label. An inventory ...
should be kept, showing quantity of carcinogen & date it was acquired ...
Facilities for dispensing ... should be contiguous to storage area. /Chemical
Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della
Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.).
Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC
Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research
on Cancer, 1979. 13]**PEER REVIEWED**
Protect containers against physical damage. Separate from oxidizing and
alkaline materials. Indoor storage should be in areas having floors pitched
toward a trapped drain or in curbed retention areas. Store where temperature
range is 16 deg C to 35 deg C. Should not be stored in confined spaces or near
open flames. Indoor storage areas should be equipped with automatic sprinklers.
Storage tanks should be adequately grounded to discharge static electricity and
to reduce other electrical hazard. [ITII. Toxic and Hazardous
Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. Tokyo, Japan: The International Technical
Information Institute, 1988. 250]**PEER REVIEWED**
Cleanup Methods:
Use fluorocarbon water spray, Cellosize and Hycar to diminish vapors. Sodium
carbonate, ammonium hydroxide, or sodium sulfite can neutralize the spill.
[Prager, J.C. Environmental Contaminant Reference Databook
Volume 1. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995. 707]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Use universal gel, fly ash, universal sorbent material, or cement powder to
absorb the spill. [Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem
Spills: Formaldehyde p.88 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental considerations-land spill: Dig a pit, pond, lagoon, holding
area to contain liquid or solid material. /SRP: If time permits, pits, ponds,
lagoons, soak holes, or holding areas should be sealed with an impermeable
flexible membrane liner./ Dike surface flow using soil, sand bags, foamed
polyurethane, or foamed concrete. Absorb bulk liquid with fly ash or cement
powder. Add sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3). [Association of
American Railroads. Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface
Transportation. Washington, DC: Association of American Railroads, Bureau of
Explosives, 1994. 516]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental considerations-air spill: Apply water spray or mist to knock
down vapors. Combustion products include corrosive or toxic vapors.
[Association of American Railroads. Emergency Handling of
Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation. Washington, DC: Association of
American Railroads, Bureau of Explosives, 1994. 516]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": A high-efficiency particulate arrestor (HEPA)
or charcoal filters can be used to minimize amt of carcinogen in exhausted air
ventilated safety cabinets, lab hoods, glove boxes or animal rooms ... Filter
housing that is designed so that used filters can be transferred into plastic
bag without contaminating maintenance staff is avail commercially. Filters
should be placed in plastic bags immediately after removal ... The plastic bag
should be sealed immediately ... The sealed bag should be labelled properly ...
Waste liquids ... should be placed or collected in proper containers for
disposal. The lid should be secured & the bottles properly labelled. Once
filled, bottles should be placed in plastic bag, so that outer surface ... is
not contaminated ... The plastic bag should also be sealed & labelled. ...
Broken glassware ... should be decontaminated by solvent extraction, by chemical
destruction, or in specially designed incinerators. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 15]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental considerations: water spill: Use natural barriers or oil spill
control booms to limit spill travel. Use surface active agent (eg detergent,
soaps, alcohols), if approved by USEPA. Inject "universal" gelling agent to
solidify encircled spill and increase effectiveness of booms. Add sodium
bisulfite (NaHSO3). If dissolved, in region of 10 ppm or greater concentration,
apply activated carbon at ten times the spilled amount. Use mechanical dredges
or lifts to remove immobilized masses of pollutants and precipitates.
[Association of American Railroads. Emergency Handling of
Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation. Washington, DC: Association of
American Railroads, Bureau of Explosives, 1994. 516]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Approach release from upwind. use water spray to cool and disperse vapors,
protect personnel, and dilute spills to form nonflammable mixtures. Stop or
control the leak, if this can be done without undue risk. Control runoff and
isolate discharged material for proper disposal. [Fire
Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 12 ed. Quincy, MA: National Fire
Protection Association, 1997.,p. 49-72]**PEER REVIEWED**
Disposal Methods:
Generators of waste (equal to or greater than 100 kg/mo) containing this
contaminant, EPA hazardous waste number U122, must conform with USEPA
regulations in storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste.
[40 CFR 240-280, 300-306, 702-799 (7/1/2000)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Generators of waste (equal to or greater than 100 kg/mo) containing this
contaminant, EPA hazardous waste number U122, must conform with USEPA
regulations in storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste.
[Prager, J.C. Environmental Contaminant Reference Databook
Volume 1. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995. 707]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde is a waste chemical
stream constituent which may be subjected to ultimate disposal by controlled
incineration. [USEPA; Engineering Handbook for Hazardous
Waste Incineration p.2-7 (1981) EPA 68-03-3025]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A good candidate for rotary kiln incineration at a temperature range of 820
to 1,600 deg C and residence times of seconds for liquids and gases, and hours
for solids. A good candidate for fluidized bed incineration at a temperature
range of 450 to 980 deg C and residence times of seconds for liquids and gases,
and longer for solids. [USEPA; Engineering Handbook for
Hazardous Waste Incineration p.3-13 (1981) EPA 68-03-3025]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Dissolve in a combustible solvent, then spray the soln into the furnace with
afterburner. Recommendable methods: Incineration, oxidation, & discharge to
sewer. Not recommendable methods: Evaporation & alkaline hydrolysis.
Peer-review: Dilute formaldehyde waste
with a large amt of water and treat the soln by hypochlorite soln. Concentration
of formaldehyde in the soln should be
below 2% in order to avoid excess exothermic reaction heat. Formaldehyde is a powerful reducing agent and
many oxidants can be used, but may react violently (must be diluted). Alkaline
hydrolysis may be dangerous because of exothermic reaction. (Peer-review
conclusions of an IRPTC expert consultation (May 1985))
[United Nations. Treatment and Disposal Methods for Waste
Chemicals (IRPTC File). Data Profile Series No. 5. Geneva, Switzerland: United
Nations Environmental Programme, Dec. 1985. 183]**PEER
REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": There is no universal method of disposal that
has been proved satisfactory for all carcinogenic compounds & specific
methods of chem destruction ... published have not been tested on all kinds of
carcinogen-containing waste. ... Summary of avail methods & recommendations
... /given/ must be treated as guide only. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 14]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": ... Incineration may be only feasible method
for disposal of contaminated laboratory waste from biological expt. However, not
all incinerators are suitable for this purpose. The most efficient type ... is
probably the gas-fired type, in which a first-stage combustion with a less than
stoichiometric air:fuel ratio is followed by a second stage with excess air.
Some ... are designed to accept ... aqueous & organic-solvent solutions,
otherwise it is necessary ... to absorb soln onto suitable combustible material,
such as sawdust. Alternatively, chem destruction may be used, esp when small
quantities ... are to be destroyed in laboratory. /Chemical Carcinogens/
[Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della Porta, L.
Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.). Handling
Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC Scientific
Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer,
1979. 15]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": HEPA (high-efficiency particulate arrestor)
filters ... can be disposed of by incineration. For spent charcoal filters, the
adsorbed material can be stripped off at high temp & carcinogenic wastes
generated by this treatment conducted to & burned in an incinerator. ...
LIQUID WASTE: ... Disposal should be carried out by incineration at temp that
... ensure complete combustion. SOLID WASTE: Carcasses of lab animals, cage
litter & misc solid wastes ... should be disposed of by incineration at temp
high enough to ensure destruction of chem carcinogens or their metabolites.
/Chemical Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland,
G. Della Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W.
Davis (eds.). Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of
Safety. IARC Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency
for Research on Cancer, 1979. 15]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": ... Small quantities of ... some carcinogens
can be destroyed using chem reactions ... but no general rules can be given. ...
As a general technique ... treatment with sodium dichromate in strong sulfuric
acid can be used. The time necessary for destruction ... is seldom known ... but
1-2 days is generally considered sufficient when freshly prepd reagent is used.
... Carcinogens that are easily oxidizable can be destroyed with milder
oxidative agents, such as saturated soln of potassium permanganate in acetone,
which appears to be a suitable agent for destruction of hydrazines or of
compounds containing isolated carbon-carbon double bonds. Concn or 50% aqueous
sodium hypochlorite can also be used as an oxidizing agent. /Chemical
Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della
Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.).
Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC
Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research
on Cancer, 1979. 16]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRECAUTIONS FOR "CARCINOGENS": Carcinogens that are alkylating, arylating or
acylating agents per se can be destroyed by reaction with appropriate
nucleophiles, such as water, hydroxyl ions, ammonia, thiols & thiosulfate.
The reactivity of various alkylating agents varies greatly ... & is also
influenced by sol of agent in the reaction medium. To facilitate the complete
reaction, it is suggested that the agents be dissolved in ethanol or similar
solvents. ... No method should be applied ... until it has been thoroughly
tested for its effectiveness & safety on material to be inactivated. For
example, in case of destruction of alkylating agents, it is possible to detect
residual compounds by reaction with 4(4-nitrobenzyl)-pyridine. /Chemical
Carcinogens/ [Montesano, R., H. Bartsch, E.Boyland, G. Della
Porta, L. Fishbein, R. A. Griesemer, A.B. Swan, L. Tomatis, and W. Davis (eds.).
Handling Chemical Carcinogens in the Laboratory:Problems of Safety. IARC
Scientific Publications No. 33. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research
on Cancer, 1979. 17]**PEER REVIEWED**
The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for
formaldehyde: Biological treatment.
[USEPA; Management of Hazardous Waste Leachate, EPA Contract
No.68-03-2766 p.E-34 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The following wastewater treatment technologies have been investigated for
formaldehyde: Activated carbon.
[USEPA; Management of Hazardous Waste Leachate, EPA Contract
No.68-03-2766 p.E-133 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Ceiling limit 0.3 ppm [American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists. TLVs and BEIs. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical
Substances and Physical Agents andBiological Exposure Indices for 2001.
Cincinnati, OH. 2001. 33]**PEER REVIEWED**
A2: Suspected human carcinogen. [American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists. TLVs and BEIs. Threshold Limit Values for
Chemical Substances and Physical Agents andBiological Exposure Indices for 2001.
Cincinnati, OH. 2001. 33]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Recommendations:
Recommended Exposure Limit: 10 Hr Time-Weighted Avg: 0.016 ppm.
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.
148]**PEER REVIEWED**
Recommended Exposure Limit: 15 Min Ceiling Value: 0.1 ppm.
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.
148]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH considers formaldehyde to be a
potential occupational carcinogen. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1997. 148]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH usually recommends that occupational exposures to carcinogens be
limited to the lowest feasible concentration. [NIOSH. NIOSH
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. 148]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health:
20 ppm; NIOSH considers formaldehyde
to be a potential occupational carcinogen. [NIOSH. NIOSH
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. 148]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Other Occupational Permissible Levels:
Australia (1990): 1 ppm TWA. 2 ppm STEL, probable human carcinogen; Federal
Republic of Germany (1991): 0.5 ppm, short-term level 1.0 ppm, 5 min, 8
times/shift; group B, suspected of having carcinogenic potential; danger of
sensitization; Sweden (1989): 0.8 ppm, ceiling 1.0 ppm, sensitizer; United
Kingdom (1991): 2 ppm, 10-minute STEL 2 ppm [American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. Documentation of the
Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I,II,
III. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1991. 683]**PEER REVIEWED**
Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPG): ERPG(1) 1 ppm (no more than
mild, transient effects) for up to 1 hr exposure; ERPG(2) 10 ppm (without
serious, adverse effects) for up to 1 hr exposure; ERPG(3) 25 ppm (not life
threatening) up to 1 hr exposure. [American Industrial
Hygiene Association. The AIHA 2001 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and
Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook. AIHA Press, Fairfax, VA.
2001. 25]**PEER REVIEWED**
Manufacturing/Use Information:
Major Uses:
For Formaldehyde (USEPA/OPP Pesticide
Code: 043001) ACTIVE products with label matches. /SRP: Registered for use in
the U.S. but approved pesticide uses may change periodically and so federal,
state and local authorities must be consulted for currently approved uses./
[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/Office of Pesticide
Program's Chemical Ingredients Database on Formaldehyde (50-00-0). Available
from the Database Query page at http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/epa/epamenu.htm as
of May 24, 2001.]**PEER REVIEWED**
FIXATION OF HISTOLOGICAL SPECIMENS & IN ALTERATION OF BACTERIAL TOXINS TO
TOXOIDS FOR VACCINES. /SOLN, USP/ [Goodman, L.S., and A.
Gilman. (eds.) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 5th ed. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975. 993]**PEER REVIEWED**
AS GERMICIDE ... MAINLY USED IN 2-8% CONCN TO DISINFECT INANIMATE OBJECTS ...
. [Gilman, A. G., L. S. Goodman, and A. Gilman. (eds.).
Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 6th ed. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. 1980. 970]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In the production of fertilizers. As a textile finish, preservative,
stabilizer, disinfectant, and antibacterial food additive.
[Budavari, S. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of
Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc.,
1996. 718]**PEER REVIEWED**
Polyacetal resins, ethylene glycol, pentaerythritol, hexamethylenetetramine,
biocide, embalming fluids, reducing agent as in recovery of gold and silver,
corrosion inhibitor in oil wells, durable-press treatment of textile fabrics,
industrial sterilant, treatment of grain smut, and a versatile chemical
intermediate. [Lewis, R.J., Sr (Ed.). Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary. 13th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997.
514]**PEER REVIEWED**
Used in the manufacture of amino and phenolic resins. Phenol-formaldehyde resins find use as adhesives for
binding wood products (particle board, fiber board, and plywood), molding
compounds (in electrical, automotive, and kitchen parts), phenolic foam
insulation, foundry mold binders, decorative and industrial laminates, and
binders for insulating materials. Urea-formaldehyde resins find use as molding
compounds, adhesives for paper products. Melamine- formaldehyde resins find use in decorative
laminates, thermoset surface coatings, and molding compounds such as dinnerware.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed.
Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
944]**PEER REVIEWED**
Use to make 1,4-butanediol, polyols, acetal resins, hexamethylenetetramine,
methylene bis(4-phenyl isocyanate), chelating agents (eg, EDTA and NTA), formaldehyde-alcohol solutions,
paraformaldehyde, trioxane, tetraoxane, and many other chemicals.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed.
Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
945]**PEER REVIEWED**
Used as a corrosion inhibitor, hydrogen sulfide scavenger, and biocide in oil
production operations such as drilling, waterford, and enhanced oil recovery.
Other uses include fungicides, and silage preservatives.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed.
Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
947]**PEER REVIEWED**
CHEM INT FOR PHENOLIC, POLYACETAL & MELAMINE RESINS
[SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
Soil sterilant in mushroom houses before planting. /Former use/
[Farm Chemicals Handbook 87. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister
Publishing Co., 1987.,p. C-121]**PEER REVIEWED**
MEDICATION (VET) **PEER REVIEWED**
Manufacturers:
Borden Chemical, Inc., 180 East Broad St., Columbus, OH 43215-3799, (614)
225-4000; Production sites: Baytown, TX 77520; Demopolis, AL 36732; Diboll, TX
75941; Fayetteville, NC 28301; Fremont, CA 94538; Geismar, LA 70734; Hope,
AR71801; Kent, WA 98031; La Grande, OR 97850; Louisville, KY 40216; Malvern, AR
72104; Missoula, MT 59801; Sheboygan, WI 53081; South Glen Falls, NY 12803;
Springfield, OR 97477; Vicksburg, MS 39180; Waverly, VA 23890
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 649]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Borden Chemicals and Plastics, Operating Limited Partnership, Highway 73,
Geismar, LA 70734, (225) 673-6121; Production site: Geismar, LA 70734
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 649]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Capital Resin Corp., 324 Dering Ave., Columbus, OH 43207-2956, (614)
445-7290; Production site: Columbus, OH 43207 [SRI
International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI
Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 649]**PEER REVIEWED**
Celanese Ltd., Celanese Chemicals-Americas, 86 Morris Ave., Summit, NJ 07901,
(972) 443-4000; Production sites: Bishop, TX 78343; Rock Hill, SC 29730
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 649]**PEER
REVIEWED**
D.B. Western, Inc., 1360 Airport Lane, North Bend, OR 97459, (541) 756-0533
Production site: Virginia, MN 55792 [SRI International. 2000
Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA
2000 649]**PEER REVIEWED**
Degussa-Huls Corp., 65 Challenger Rd., Ridgefield Park, NJ 07660, (201)
641-6100. Chemical Group; Production site: Theodore, AL 36590
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 649]**PEER
REVIEWED**
DuPont, 1007 Market St., Wilmington, DE 19898, (800) 441-7515. DuPont
Specialty Chemicals, Dupont Performance, Specialty, and Fine Chemicals;
Production site: La Porte, TX 77571 [SRI International. 2000
Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA
2000 649]**PEER REVIEWED**
Georgia-Pacific Resins, Inc., 55 Park Place, 19th floor, Atlanta, GA 30303,
(770) 593-6800; Production sites: Albany, OR 97321; Columbus, OH 43207; Conway,
NC 27820; Crosset, AR 71635; Denton, NC 27239; Grayling, MI 49738; Hampton, SC
29924; Houston, TX 77015; Louisville, MS 39339; Lufkin, TX 75901; Russellville,
SC 29476; Taylorsville, MS 39168; Vienna, GA 31092; White City, OR 97503
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 649]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Geo Specialty Chemicals, Inc., 28601 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 210, Cleveland, OH
44122, (216) 464-5564. TRIMET Products Group; Production site: Allentown, PA
18104 [SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical
Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 650]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Hercules Inc., Hercules Plaza, 1313 North Market St., Wilmington, DE 19894-
0001, (302) 594-500. Functional Products Segment, Aqualon Division; Production
site: Louisiana, MO 63353 [SRI International. 2000 Directory
of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000
650]**PEER REVIEWED**
International Specialty Products, Inc., 1361 Alps Rd., Wayne, NJ 07470-3688,
(973) 628-4000; Production site: Texas City, TX 77590 [SRI
International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI
Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 650]**PEER REVIEWED**
Neste Resins Corp., 1600 Valley River Drive, Suite 390, Eugene, OR 97401,
(541) 687-8840; Production sites: Andalusia, AL 36420; Moncure, NC 27559;
Springfield, OR 97477; Toledo, OH 43612; Winnfield, LA 71483
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 650]**PEER
REVIEWED**
New Mexico Adhesives LLC, 780 Airport Route, Las Vegas, NM 87701, (505)
425-5932; Production site: Las Vegas, NM 87701 [SRI
International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI
Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 650]**PEER REVIEWED**
Perstorp Polyols, Inc., 600 Matzinger Rd., Toledo, OH 43612, (419) 729-5448;
Production site: Toledo, OH 43612 [SRI International. 2000
Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA
2000 650]**PEER REVIEWED**
Praxair, Inc., 39 Old Ridgebury Rd., Danbury, CT 06810-5113, (203) 837-2505;
Production site: Geismar, LA 70734 [SRI International. 2000
Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA
2000 650]**PEER REVIEWED**
Solutia, Inc., 575 Maryville Centre Drive, P.O. Box 66760, St. Louis, MO
63166-6760, (314) 674-1000; Production site: Alvin, TX 77511
[SRI International. 2000 Directory of Chemical Producers --
United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo Park: CA 2000 650]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Wright Chemical Corp., Acme Station, Acme, NC 28446, (910) 251-8952;
Production site: Riegelwood, NC 28456 [SRI International.
2000 Directory of Chemical Producers -- United States. SRI Consulting, Menlo
Park: CA 2000 650]**PEER REVIEWED**
Methods of Manufacturing:
Historically, formaldehyde has been
and continues to be mfr from methanol. During the decades following World War II
... as much as 20% of formaldehyde
produced in the USA was made by the vapor phase, non-catalytic oxidation of
propane and butanes. ... Today, all of the world's commercial formaldehyde is mfr from methanol and air by
an older process using a metal catalyst and a newer one using a metal oxide
catalyst. ... In early formaldehyde
plants, methanol was oxidized over a copper catalyst, but in recent years this
has been almost completely replaced with silver. [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed. Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley
and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994) 934]**PEER REVIEWED**
Oxidation of synthetic methanol or low-boiling petroleum gases such as
propane and butane. Silver, copper, or iron-molybdenum oxide are the most common
catalysts. [Lewis, R.J., Sr (Ed.). Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary. 13th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997.
514]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde ... is used in the form
of anhydrous monomer, soln, polymers, and derivatives. Anhydrous, monomeric
formaldehyde is not avail commercially.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed.
Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
931]**PEER REVIEWED**
U.S. Formaldehyde production capacity
in 1989 was 4,310X10+3 tons/yr based on 37% wt formaldehyde (with 2 wt% methanol) /from
Table/ [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th
ed. Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
941]**PEER REVIEWED**
All information on capacity & demand is reported on a 37% wt formaldehyde basis. Total plant production
capacity in the USA in 1978 was 4,086X10+3 tons/year. /From table/
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 240
(1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Worldwide production capacity in 1977 was estimated to be over 12.6x10+6
metric tons/yr as 37% by weight formaldehyde. [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 242 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Formaldehyde, when used as a
preservative in shampoos, may interact unfavorably with both fragrance
components and color additives. [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
1978-1984.,p. V12 91 (1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Discontinued in 1987 by Chemical Supply Co, Ltd /Formalin/ [Farm Chemicals
Handbook 2001. Willoughby, OH: Meister Publishing Co., P. c 200 (2001)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Worldwide production capacity in 1989 was 15.5X10+6 tons as 37 wt% formaldehyde solution.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed.
Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
939]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formulations/Preparations:
Pure formaldehyde is not avail
commercially because of its tendency to polymerize. It is sold as aqueous
solutions containing from 37% to 50% formaldehyde by wt & varying amounts of
methanol. [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of
Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Marketed under the trade name Formcel, soln in methanol, n-butanol, and
isobutanol. ... [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
1978-1984.,p. V2 443 (1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Aq formaldehyde, known as formalin, is usually 37% by weight of formaldehyde, though more concn soln are
available. Formalin is the
general-purpose formaldehyde of commerce
supplied unstabilized or methanol-stabilized. ... Formaldehyde may also exist in the form of the
cyclic trimer trioxane. This is a fairly stable cmpd that does not easily
release formaldehyde. ...
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V2 443
(1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Grade: Aqueous solutions: 37%, 44%, 50% inhibited (with varying percentages
of methanol) or stabilized or unstabilized (methanol-free), also available in
solution in n-butanol, ethanol, or urea; USP (37% aqueous solution containing
methanol). [Lewis, R.J., Sr (Ed.). Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary. 13th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997.
514]**PEER REVIEWED**
Soluble concentrate; hot fogging concentrate [Tomlin,
C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World Compendium, 11 th ed., British Crop
Protection Council, Surrey, England 1997 622]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Consumption Patterns:
Worldwide demand for formaldehyde in
1989 was estimated to be about 85-90% of capacity /about 14X10+6 t as 37 wt%
formaldehyde soln/
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed.
Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present.,p. V11 (1994)
947]**PEER REVIEWED**
CHEM INT FOR UREA-FORMALDEHYDE
RESINS, 26.5%; CHEM INT FOR PHENOLIC RESINS, 19.6%; CHEM INT FOR ACETYLENIC
CHEMS, 8.4%; CHEM INT FOR POLYACETAL RESINS, 7.9%; CHEM INT FOR PENTAERYTHRITOL,
6.7%; CHEM INT FOR HEXAMETHYLENETETRAMINE, 5.5%; CHEM INT FOR UREA-FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATES, 5.2%; CHEM INT FOR
METHYLENE DIANILINE, 3.9%; CHEM INT FOR MELAMINE RESINS, 3.6%; CHEM INT FOR
CHELATING AGENTS, 2.8%; OTHER, 9.9% (1981). [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Worldwide demand for formaldehyde in
1976 was estimated to be about 7.5X10+6 tons or 60% capacity.
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 242
(1980)]**PEER REVIEWED**
During 1985 ... resins going in to adhesives and plastics ... amount to more
than 60% of demand ... most of the rest of formaldehyde demand is for use as a chemical
intermediate. [Chem Eng News 63 (5): 14 (1985)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
CHEMICAL PROFILE: Formaldehyde.
Demand: 6.73 billion lb; 1989: 6.5 billion lb; 1993 /projected/: 7.6 billion lb.
(Includes exports but not imports, both of which are negligible).
[Kavaler AR; Chemical Marketing Reporter 236 (12): 54
(1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Uses: Urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins
(23%), phenolic resins (19%), acetylenic chemicals (12%), polyacetal resins
(11%), methylene diisocyanate (MDI) (6%), pentaerythritol (5%), urea-formaldehyde concentrates (4%),
hexamethylenetetraamine (HMTA) (4%), melamine resins (4%), misc, including
chelating agents, trimethylpropane, pyridine chemicals, nitroparaffin
derivatives, textiles treating and trimethylolethane (12%).
[Chemexpo; Chemical Profile: Formaldehyde (June 22, 1998).
Available from Database query page at
http://www.chemexpo.com/news/PROFile980622.cfm as of May 3, 2001.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1960) 8.48X10+5 tons/year as 37% formaldehyde [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 241 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1965) 1.409X10+6 tons/year as 37% formaldehyde [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 241 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1970) 2.008X10+6 tons/year as 37% formaldehyde [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 241 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1975) 2.067X10+6 tons/year as 37% formaldehyde [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 241 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1977) 2.742X10+6 tons/year as 37% formaldehyde [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 241 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1978) 2.948X10+6 tons/year as 37% formaldehyde [Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V11 241 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1977) 1.01X10+12 G (100% BY WEIGHT SOLN) [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1982) 8.09X10+11 G (100% BY WEIGHT SOLN) [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1983) 3.95X10+12 g (37% by weight soln) [CHEMICAL
PRODUCTS SYNOPSIS: Formaldehyde, 1983]**PEER REVIEWED**
(1988) 6.28X10+9 lb (37% formaldehyde
by weight) [United States International Trade Commission.
Synthetic Organic Chemicals- United States Production and Sales, 1988. USITC
Publication 1989. Washington,DC: United States International Trade Commission,
1989.,p. 15-5]**PEER REVIEWED**
(1978) 1.11X10+9 G (INCL SOLNS) [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1983) 7.34X10+9 G (INCL SOLNS) [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1985) 3.87X10+9 g (incl solns) [BUREAU OF THE CENSUS.
U.S. IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION AND GENERAL IMPORTS 1985 p.1-580]**PEER
REVIEWED**
CHEMICAL PROFILE: Formaldehyde.
(1989) 11 million lbs [Kavaler AR; Chemical Marketing
Reporter 236 (12): 54 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
(2002) 140X10+6 lbs (est). [Chemexpo; Chemical Profile:
Formaldehyde (June 22, 1998). Available from Database query page at
http://www.chemexpo.com/news/PROFile980622.cfm as of May 3, 2001.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
U. S. Exports:
(1978) 1.04X10+10 G (INCL SOLNS) [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1983) 7.80X10+10 G (INCL SOLNS) [SRI]**PEER
REVIEWED**
(1985) 4.01X10+8 g [BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. U.S. EXPORTS,
SCHEDULE E, 1985 p.2-76]**PEER REVIEWED**
CHEMICAL PROFILE: Formaldehyde.
(1998) 19 million lbs [Kavaler AR; Chemical Marketing
Reporter 236 (12): 54 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
(2002) 25X10+6 lbs (est). [Chemexpo; Chemical Profile:
Formaldehyde (June 22, 1998). Available from Database query page at
http://www.chemexpo.com/news/PROFile980622.cfm as of May 3, 2001.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Laboratory Methods:
Analytic Laboratory Methods:
... Workplace air samples ... /were/ analyzed by differential pulse
polarography. The method was validated over the range of 5.8 - 17.7 mg/cu m. ...
Average recovery was 103%. The pooled coefficient of variation or relative
standard deviation was 0.08. [Septon JC, Ku JC; Am Ind Hyg
Assoc J 43 (11): 145-52 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Approximately 20 g of soil, accurately weighed, are collected in a glass jar
and dried by the addition of magnesium sulfate. Freon 113
(1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-triflouroethane) is used to extract the formaldehyde. The extracts are combined in a
100 ml volumetric flask and the volume taken to 100 ml with Freon. The sample is
scanned on a suitable spectrophotometer from 3200 to 2700 cm-1 using matched 1
cm cells. The sample concentration is determined from a calibration curve.
[Amer Water Works Assn; Tech Info for Problem Spills:
Formaldehyde p.96 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Two methods for measuring formaldehyde at ppb levels, the modified
pararosaniline and the modified chromotropic acid, were evaluated in a
laboratory study. A dynamic double dilution system was used to generate
controlled test atmospheres of formaldehyde by the catalytic depolymerization
of trioxane. Impinger samples were collected from the sampling manifold and
/determined/ accordingly. Both methods demonstrated good precision (3.5% for the
pararosaniline and 3.4% for the chromotropic acid) but differed in accuracy and
collection efficiency. Accuracy was 87.7 + or - 7.5% for the pararosaniline and
92.5 + or - 4.2% for the chromotropic acid, while collection efficiency was 91.9
+ or - 6.9% and 98.7 + or - 4.7%, respectively. [Petreas M et
al; Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 47 (5): 276-80 (1986)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 2539. Analyte: Formaldehyde. Matrix: Air. Procedure: Gas
chromatography, flame ionization detector and gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry. For formaldehyde this
method has an estimated detection limit of 2 ug aldehyde/sample. The
precision/RSD is not determined. Applicability: This is a screening technique to
determine the presence of aldehydes and should not be used for quantitation.
Interferences: High-boiling naphtha mixtures and mineral spirits may have
components with retention times similar to the formaldehydes and may be
interferences in the gas chromatographic analysis. [U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH
Manual of Analytical Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z & Supplements. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 3500. Analyte: Formaldehyde. Matrix: Air. Procedure: Visible
absorption spectrometry. For formaldehyde this method has an estimated
detection limit of 0.5 ug/sample. The precision/RSD is 0.03 @ 1 to 20 ug/sample.
Applicability: The working range is 0.02 to 4 ppm (0.025 to 4.6 mg/cu m) for an
80 liter air sample. Interferences: Phenols, in 8 fold excess over formaldehyde produce a -10% to -20% bias.
Little interference is seen from other aldehydes. [U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH
Manual of Analytical Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z & Supplements. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 2541. Analyte: Formaldehyde. Matrix: Air. Procedure: Gas
chromatography hydrogen-air flame ionization detector. For formaldehyde this method has an estimated
detection limit of 1 ug/sample. The precision/RSD is 0.0052 @ 38 to 194
ug/sample. Applicability: The working range is 0.24 to 16 ppm (0.3 to 20 mg/cu
m) for a 10 liter air sample. Interferences: None have been observed.
[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z &
Supplements. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 5700. Determination of Formaldehyde On Dust (Textile or Wood) by High
Performance Liquid Chromatography. This method is applicable to textile and wood
dust. Detection limit = 0.08 ug/cu m. [U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z & Supplements. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER REVIEWED**
EPA Method 8015. Direct Injection or Purge-and-Trap Gas Chromatography for
the determination of nonhalogenated volatile organics in solid waste. Under the
prescribed conditions formaldehyde can
be detected using this method. No statistical analysis was determined; specific
method performance information will be provided as it becomes available.
[USEPA; Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste SW-846
(1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
EPA Method 8240. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry for the determination
of volatile Organics. This method can be used to quantify most volatile organic
compounds including formaldehyde that
have boiling points below 200 deg C and are insoluble or slightly soluble in
water. The detection limit is not given. Precision and method accuracy were
found to be directly related to the concentration of the analyte and essentially
independent of the sample matrix. [USEPA; Test Methods for
Evaluating Solid Waste SW-846 (1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
OSW Method 0011. Sampling of Formaldehyde (and other aldehydes and ketones)
from Stack Emissions by Derivatization with 2,4-Dinitrophenyl-Hydrazine. Formaldehyde, and any other aldehydes or
ketones present, react with DNPH to yield dinitrophenylhydrazones. These are
analyzed by HPLC following extraction and concentration. Detection limit = 1.8
ppb. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods
Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
OSW Method 0011A. Analysis for Aldehydes and Ketones by High Performance
Liquid Chromatography. This method is applicable to aqueous samples, leachates
of solid samples (Method 1311), and impinger solutions from Method 0011.
Detection limit = 7.2 ug/l. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental
Monitoring Methods Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government
Institutes (1997)]**PEER REVIEWED**
OSW Method 8315. Determination of Carbonyl Compounds by High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). This method is applicable to various matrices by
derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). Detection limit = 6.2
ug/l. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods
Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
OSW Method 8315A-LLE. Determination of Carbonyl Compounds by High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Using Liquid-Liquid Extraction. This method is
applicable to the determination of free carbonyl compounds in various matrices
by derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). Detection limit = 23
ug/l. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods
Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
OSW Method 8315A-LSE. Determination of Carbonyl Compounds by High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) using Liquid-Solid Extraction. This method is
applicable to the determination of free carbonyl compounds in various matrices
by derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). Detection limit = 6.2
ug/l. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods
Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
AOAC Method 897.01. Formaldehyde in
Pesticide Formulations by Cyanide Method. Applicable to diluted solutions only.
Detection limit not specified. [Association of Official
Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. and Supplements.
Washington, DC: Association of Analytical Chemists, 1990 226]**PEER
REVIEWED**
AOAC Method 898.01. Formaldehyde in
Pesticide Formulations by Hydrogen Peroxide Method. Applicable to solutions
only. Detection limit not specified. [Association of Official
Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. and Supplements.
Washington, DC: Association of Analytical Chemists, 1990 226]**PEER
REVIEWED**
AOAC Method 931.03: Formaldehyde in
Seed Disinfectants by Titrimetric Method. Applicable to the detection of formaldehyde (HCHO) absorbed in inert carrier,
e.g., bentonite, talc, charcoal, and sawdust. Detection limit not specified.
[Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official
Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. and Supplements. Washington, DC: Association of
Analytical Chemists, 1990 226]**PEER REVIEWED**
EPA Method 554. Determination of Carbonyl Compounds in Drinking Water by
Dinitrophenylhydrazine Derivatization and High Performance Liquid
Chromatography. This method is used for the determination of selected carbonyl
compounds in finished drinking water or raw source water. Detection limit = 8.1
ug/l. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods
Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
EPA Method 6. Determination of Carbonyl Compounds in Drinking Water by
Dinitrophenylhydrazine Derivatization and High Performance Liquid
Chromatography. This method is used for the determination of selected carbonyl
compounds in finished drinking water or raw source water. Detection limit = 9
ug/l. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods
Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
AOAC Method 964.21: Formaldehyde in
maple syrup spectrophotometric method is not suitable for beet or cane sugars.
Detection limit unspecified. [Association of Official
Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. and Supplements.
Washington, DC: Association of Analytical Chemists, 1990 1037]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Sampling Procedures:
NIOSH Method 2539. Analyte: Formaldehyde. Matrix: Air. Sampler: Solid
sorbent tube (10% 2-(hydroxy methyl)) pipendine on XAD-2, 20 mg/60 mg. Flow
Rate: 0.01 to 0.05 l/min: Sample Size: 5-liters. Shipment: At 25 deg C or lower.
Sample Stability: Stable greater or equal to 1 week @ 25 deg C.
[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z &
Supplements. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 3500. Analyte: Formaldehyde. Matrix: Air. Sampler: Filter
plus impingers (1 um polytetrafluoroethylene membrane and 2 impingers, each with
20 ml 1% sodium bisulfite solution). Flow Rate: 0.2 to 1 liter/min: Sample Size:
80 liters. Shipment: Transfer samples to flow-density polyethylene bottles
before shipping. Sample Stability: 30 days @ 25 deg C. [U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH
Manual of Analytical Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z & Supplements. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 2541. Analyte: Formaldehyde. Matrix: Air. Sampler: Solid
sorbent tube (10% (2-(hydroxymethyl)) piperidine on XAD-2, 120 mg/60 mg). Flow
Rate: 0.01 to 0.10 l/min. Sample Size: 10 liters. Shipment: Routine. Sample
Stability: 3 weeks @ 25 deg C. [U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Manual of Analytical
Methods. 4th ed.Methods A-Z & Supplements. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Aug 1994.]**PEER REVIEWED**
OSW Method 0100. Sampling for Formaldehyde and Other Carbonyl Compounds in
Indoor Air. This method provides procedures for the sampling of various carbonyl
compounds in indoor air by derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH)
in a silica gel cartridge. [USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental
Monitoring Methods Index. Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government
Institutes (1997)]**PEER REVIEWED**
OSW Method 8520. Continuous Measurement of Formaldehyde in Ambient Air. This method is
applicable to the continuous measurement of formaldehyde in the 6 to 500 ug/m3 range in
ambient air. It is used primarily for nonoccupational exposure monitoring.
[USEPA; EMMI. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods Index.
Version 1.1. PC# 4082. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes (1997)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Special References:
Special Reports:
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Formaldehyde (1985)
Chem Indus Inst of Tox Rpts Conf on Formaldehyde Toxicol (1983)
TSCA CHIPs present a preliminary assessment of formaldehyde's potential for injury to human
health & the environment (available at EPA's TSCA Assistance Office: (202)
554-1404 or (800) 424-9065)
WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 89: Formaldehyde (1989)
Ma T, Harris MM; Mutat Res 196: 37-59 (1988). Review of the genotoxicity of
formaldehyde.
Schlosser O; Disinfection of operating areas by formaldehyde: occupational hazards and their
prevention. Literature review of the toxicity of formaldehyde Universit'e Pierre et Marie Curie
(Paris VI), Facult'e de m'edecine Daint-Antoine, Paris, France Medical thesis.
The study surveyed the conditions under which formaldehyde was used as a disinfectant in the
operating theatres of a large hospital in Paris (France), and on the effect this
had on the health of hospital staff. Also included are a literature survey of
the toxicity of formaldehyde and
relevant French legislation.
U.S Department of Health & Human Services/National Toxicology Program;
9th Report on Carcinogens. National Institute of Environmental Health Services,
Research Triangle Park, NC. (2000)
Synonyms and Identifiers:
Synonyms:
BFV **PEER REVIEWED**
Dormol **PEER REVIEWED**
Pesticide Code: 043001 **PEER REVIEWED**
FANNOFORM **PEER
REVIEWED**
FORMALDEHYDE, GAS **PEER
REVIEWED**
FORMALDEHYDE SOLUTION
**PEER REVIEWED**
FORMALIN **PEER
REVIEWED**
FORMALITH **PEER
REVIEWED**
FORMIC ALDEHYDE **PEER
REVIEWED**
FORMOL **PEER
REVIEWED**
FYDE **PEER
REVIEWED**
IVALON **PEER REVIEWED**
LYSOFORM **PEER
REVIEWED**
METHANAL **PEER
REVIEWED**
METHYL ALDEHYDE **PEER
REVIEWED**
METHYLENE OXIDE **PEER
REVIEWED**
MORBICID **PEER
REVIEWED**
OXOMETHANE **PEER
REVIEWED**
OXYMETHYLENE **PEER
REVIEWED**
SUPERLYSOFORM **PEER
REVIEWED**
Formulations/Preparations:
Pure formaldehyde is not avail
commercially because of its tendency to polymerize. It is sold as aqueous
solutions containing from 37% to 50% formaldehyde by wt & varying amounts of
methanol. [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of
Industrial Materials. 9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1996. 1688]**PEER REVIEWED**
Marketed under the trade name Formcel, soln in methanol, n-butanol, and
isobutanol. ... [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
1978-1984.,p. V2 443 (1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Aq formaldehyde, known as formalin, is usually 37% by weight of formaldehyde, though more concn soln are
available. Formalin is the
general-purpose formaldehyde of commerce
supplied unstabilized or methanol-stabilized. ... Formaldehyde may also exist in the form of the
cyclic trimer trioxane. This is a fairly stable cmpd that does not easily
release formaldehyde. ...
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V2 443
(1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Grade: Aqueous solutions: 37%, 44%, 50% inhibited (with varying percentages
of methanol) or stabilized or unstabilized (methanol-free), also available in
solution in n-butanol, ethanol, or urea; USP (37% aqueous solution containing
methanol). [Lewis, R.J., Sr (Ed.). Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary. 13th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997.
514]**PEER REVIEWED**
Soluble concentrate; hot fogging concentrate [Tomlin,
C.D.S. (ed.). The Pesticide Manual - World Compendium, 11 th ed., British Crop
Protection Council, Surrey, England 1997 622]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Shipping Name/ Number DOT/UN/NA/IMO:
UN 1198; Formaldehyde solutions,
flammable
UN 2209; Formaldehyde solutions, with
not less than 25% formaldehyde.
IMO 3.3; Formaldehyde solutions,
flammable
IMO 8.0; Formaldehyde solutions, with
not less than 25% formaldehyde
Standard Transportation Number:
49 131 68; Formaldehyde solution
(liquid) or formalin (flash point more
than 141 deg F, in containers over 110 gal)
49 403 64; Formaldehyde solution
(liquid) or formalin (flash point more
than 141 deg F, in containers of 110 gal or less)
49 131 69; Formaldehyde solution
(paste) or formalin (flash point more
than 141 deg F, in containers over 110 gal)
49 403 65; Formaldehyde solution
(paste) or formalin (flash point more
than 141 deg F, in containers of 110 gal or less)
49 131 44; Formaldehyde solution
(liquid) or formalin (flash point not
more than 141 deg F, in containers over 110 gal)
49 403 41; Formaldehyde solution
(liquid) or formalin (flash point not
more than 141 deg F, in containers of 110 gal or less)
49 131 45; Formaldehyde solution
(paste) or formalin (flash point not
more than 141 deg F, in containers over 110 gal)
49 403 42; Formaldehyde solution
(paste) or formalin (flash point not
more than 141 deg F, in containers of 110 gal or less)
EPA Hazardous Waste Number:
U122; A toxic waste when a discarded commercial chemical product or
manufacturing chemical intermediate or an off-specification commercial chemical
product or a manufacturing chemical intermediate.